Diagnosing autism in neurobiological research studies
Open accessAbstract
Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is by definition a complex and heterogeneous disorder. Variation in factors such as developmental level, language ability and IQ further complicate the presentation of symptoms. Clinical research and basic science must continue to inform each other's questions to help address the heterogeneity inherent to the disorder. This review uses a clinical perspective to outline the common tools and best practices for diagnosing and characterizing ASD in a research setting. We discuss considerations for classifying research populations, including language ability and IQ and examine the advantages and disadvantages of different psychometric measurements. Ultimately, the contribution of multiple sources of data representing different perspectives is crucial for interpreting and understanding the ASD phenotype.
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Infants who develop ASD later in childhood have substantially typical profiles of interest in faces and eyes at 6 months of age.
“For example, infants who develop ASD later in childhood have substantially typical profiles of interest in faces 25 and eyes 26 at 6 months of age”
From Autism spectrum disorder (2020) · cites this paper as [26]
Section 2.1 (page unavailable) discusses white-matter trajectories and abnormal EEG responses to gaze shifts in infants who later developed ASD, but not their interest in faces or eyes. Searches for typical attention to faces and eye gaze at six months found no passage addressing that claim. (LLM, conf=0.72)
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“The majority of neuroimaging research has focused on individuals who have IQs > 70 [3, 85] and typically has matched groups based upon IQ and age.”
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A functional and structural study of emotion and face processing in children with autism
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“It does not yield meaningful continuous scores but the SCQ has been used as a means to ensure the absence or presence of autistic symptoms in neurotypical participants [66].”
MethodReward circuitry function in autism during face anticipation and outcomes
Dichter, G. S., Richey, J. A., Rittenberg, A. M., Sabatino, A., & Bodfish, J. W. (2012) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-011-1221-1 · Cited by 222 · see citing works
Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scales
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“Recent studies have begun to look at how typical developmental trajectories interact with ASD trajectories [36, 38].”
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“These measurements provide a means to study neural signatures of ASD [39, 42, 43].”
BackgroundAmygdalar Volume and Behavioral Development in Autism
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The role of the amygdala in atypical gaze on emotional faces in autism spectrum disorders
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Similar White Matter Aberrations in Children With Autism and Their Unaffected Siblings
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“Recent research suggested that scores on the ADI-R are particularly influenced by the age, IQ and language level of the child [20, 80].”
BackgroundSelf-citationSpengler, S., Bird, G., & Brass, M. (2010) · Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2010.09.017 · Cited by 170 · see citing works
Kim, S. H., & Lord, C. (2011) · Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry · doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2011.02458.x · Cited by 167 · cited 5× · see citing works
“Kim and Lord found that a total score on the toddler ADI-R algorithm above 18–22 or 18–25 on the ADOS in children less than 4 years of age resulted in 100% probability of an ASD classification on the other measurement.”
BackgroundInfluentialSelf-citationRapid Quantitative Assessment of Autistic Social Impairment by Classroom Teachers
Constantino, J. N., LaVesser, P., Zhang, Y., Abbacchi, A. M., Gray, T., & Todd, R. D. (2007) · Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry · doi:10.1097/chi.0b013e318157cb23 · Cited by 167 · see citing works
Brain hyper-reactivity to auditory novel targets in children with high-functioning autism
Gomot, M., Belmonte, M. K., Bullmore, E. T., Bernard, F. A., & Baron-Cohen, S. (2008) · Brain · doi:10.1093/brain/awn172 · Cited by 163 · cited 1× · see citing works
“Neuroimaging studies have correlated percent signal change in the brain during behavior tasks with the number of autistic traits as measured by the AQ in participants with ASD [69] as well as typically developing individuals [70–72].”
BackgroundMcCrimmon, A. W., & Rostad, K. R. (2013) · Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment · doi:10.1177/0734282913490916 · Cited by 162 · cited 2× · see citing works
“The toddler module is intended for children up to 30–36 months of age with a nonverbal ability of 12 months [9, 15].”
BackgroundA Comparison of Three Self-Report Measures of the Broader Autism Phenotype in a Non-Clinical Sample
Ingersoll, B. R., Hopwood, C. J., Wainer, A., & Donnellan, M. B. (2011) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-011-1192-2 · Cited by 161 · cited 1× · see citing works
“The ASD Quotient (AQ) [67], is a 50-item questionnaire that can be divided into five different domains and can measure autistic traits in both typically developing individuals as well as those with ASD, its psychometrics are somewhat variable [68].”
BackgroundCapone, G. T., Grados, M. A., Kaufmann, W. E., Bernad‐Ripoll, S., & Jewell, A. (2005) · American Journal of Medical Genetics Part A · doi:10.1002/ajmg.a.30622 · Cited by 154 · see citing works
Onset Patterns in Autism: Correspondence Between Home Video and Parent Report
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“The ADI-R has been demonstrated to be reliable with subjects whose mental age is above 2 years; recently algorithms were developed for 12 to 47 months of age for children whose mental age equivalents went down to 10 months [79].”
MethodSelf-citationAutism-Associated Promoter Variant in MET Impacts Functional and Structural Brain Networks
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“These assessments characterize everyday behaviors and to some degree, “outcome” as defined by adaptive independence, as opposed to intelligence tests that are intended to measure learning potential [95].”
BackgroundfMRI activation during a language task in adolescents with ASD
Knaus, T. A., Silver, A. M., Lindgren, K. A., Hadjikhani, N. K., & Tager-Flusberg, H. B. (2008) · Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society · doi:10.1017/s1355617708081216 · Cited by 138 · see citing works
Brief report: further evidence of sensory subtypes in autism
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A communication-based intervention for nonverbal children with autism: What changes? Who benefits?
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“Furthermore, behavioral observations have shown to predict changes over time [18] and response to treatment [53], which biological markers have not done yet.”
BackgroundStanford‐Binet Intelligence Scale
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Diffusion based abnormality markers of pathology: Toward learned diagnostic prediction of ASD
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“They have been independently validated [22, 23].”
Exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis of the Autism Diagnostic Interview—revised
Frazier, T. W., Youngstrom, E. A., Kubu, C. S., Sinclair, L., & Rezai, A. (2008) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-007-0415-z · Cited by 116 · cited 1× · see citing works
“A primary advantage of the ADI-R (also true for the ADOS) is that two separate scores, one in social communication that includes non-verbal and verbal communication and another for repetitive behaviors, can be generated [81, 82].”
BackgroundLuyster, R., Qiu, S., Lopez, K., & Lord, C. (2007) · Journal of Speech Language and Hearing Research · doi:10.1044/1092-4388(2007/047 · Cited by 115 · see citing works
Self-citationAn MRI and proton spectroscopy study of the thalamus in children with autism
Hardan, A. Y., Minshew, N. J., Melhem, N., Srihari, S., Jo, B., Bansal, R., Keshavan, M. S., & Stanley, J. A. (2008) · Psychiatry Research Neuroimaging · doi:10.1016/j.pscychresns.2007.12.002 · Cited by 115 · see citing works
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Affective–motivational brain responses to direct gaze in children with autism spectrum disorder
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Psychometric Validation of the Sensory Experiences Questionnaire
Little, L. M., Freuler, A., Houser, M. B., Guckian, L., Carbine, K., David, F. J., & Baranek, G. T. (2011) · American Journal of Occupational Therapy · doi:10.5014/ajot.2011.000844 · Cited by 106 · see citing works
The structure of the Autism Diagnostic Interview—Revised: diagnostic and phenotypic implications
Snow, A. V., Lecavalier, L., & Houts, C. (2009) · Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry · doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2008.02018.x · Cited by 104 · cited 1× · see citing works
“A primary advantage of the ADI-R (also true for the ADOS) is that two separate scores, one in social communication that includes non-verbal and verbal communication and another for repetitive behaviors, can be generated [81, 82].”
BackgroundVisual attention in autism families: ‘unaffected’ sibs share atypical frontal activation
Belmonte, M. K., Gomot, M., & Baron‐Cohen, S. (2010) · Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry · doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2009.02153.x · Cited by 100 · see citing works
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Brief Report: Adaptive Behavior and Cognitive Skills for Toddlers on the Autism Spectrum
Ray-Subramanian, C. E., Huai, N., & Weismer, S. E. (2010) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-010-1083-y · Cited by 90 · see citing works
Biederman, J., Petty, C. R., Fried, R. S., Wozniak, J. R., Micco, J. A., Henin, A., Doyle, R., Joshi, G., Galdo, M., Kotarski, M., et al. (2010) · Journal of Developmental & Behavioral Pediatrics · doi:10.1097/dbp.0b013e3181e56ddd · Cited by 88 · see citing works
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“Therefore, if researchers cannot use the more detailed measurements described above, expressive language ability can also be inferred by the following: ADOS module, the ‘overall level of language level’ item from the ADI-R, or from the Vineland expressive communication subdomain [20].”
BackgroundInfluentialSelf-citationVerhoeven, J. S., Rommel, N., Prodi, E., Leemans, A., Zink, I., Vandewalle, E., Noens, I. L. J., Wagemans, J. P., Steyaert, J. G., Boets, B., et al. (2011) · Cerebral Cortex · doi:10.1093/cercor/bhr292 · Cited by 82 · see citing works
Psychosis and autism: magnetic resonance imaging study of brain anatomy
Toal, F., Bloemen, O., Deeley, Q., Tunstall, N., Daly, E., Page, L., Brammer, M. J., Murphy, K. C., & Murphy, D. (2009) · The British Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1192/bjp.bp.107.049007 · Cited by 80 · see citing works
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“Rarely have studies correlated structural or functional changes in the brain with symptoms on the CARS [73], but the CARS is very commonly used in clinical settings and in studies of diagnosis and clinical change [74, 75].”
BackgroundStandardized ADOS Scores: Measuring Severity of Autism Spectrum Disorders in a Dutch Sample
de Bildt, A. A., Oosterling, I. J., van Lang, N. D. J., Sytema, S., Minderaa, R. B., van Engeland, H., Roos, S., Buitelaar, J. K., van der Gaag, R. J., & de Jonge, M. V. (2010) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-010-1057-0 · Cited by 72 · cited 1× · see citing works
“They have been independently validated [22, 23].”
Patterns of Parent-Reported Problems Indicative in Autism
Bölte, S., Dickhut, H. H., & Poustka, F. (1999) · Psychopathology · doi:10.1159/000029072 · Cited by 71 · see citing works
Autism spectrum traits predict the neural response to eye gaze in typical individuals
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Commentary from the DSM-5 Workgroup on Neurodevelopmental Disorders
Swedo, S. E., Baird, G., Cook, E. H., Happé, F. G., Harris, J. C., Kaufmann, W. E., King, B. H., Lord, C. E., Piven, J., Rogers, S. J., et al. (2012) · Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.jaac.2012.02.013 · Cited by 70 · cited 1× · see citing works
“The details and rationale of the changes have been outlined elsewhere [2, 6, 7], but we want to stress the continuity of the instruments.”
BackgroundSelf-citationGuttmann-Steinmetz, S., Gadow, K. D., DeVincent, C. J., & Crowell, J. (2010) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-010-0950-x · Cited by 67 · see citing works
Jonsdottir, S. L., Sæmundsen, E., Ásmundsdóttir, G., Hjartardóttir, S., Ásgeirsdóttir, B. B., Smáradóttir, H. H., Sigurðardóttir, S., & Smári, J. (2006) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-006-0282-z · Cited by 59 · cited 1× · see citing works
“Rarely have studies correlated structural or functional changes in the brain with symptoms on the CARS [73], but the CARS is very commonly used in clinical settings and in studies of diagnosis and clinical change [74, 75].”
BackgroundStahl, D. R., Pickles, A. R., Elsabbagh, M., Johnson, M. H., & The BASIS Team (2012) · Developmental Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/87565641.2011.650808 · Cited by 58 · cited 1× · see citing works
“Given the interest in using brain data as a diagnostic tool as well as to determine differences in brain structure and activity among individuals with ASD, an area of research has concentrated on using data reduction methods with EEG and neuroimaging data [47, 48], specifically machine learning methods, to reliably di…”
MethodBrainstem volumetric alterations in children with autism
Jou, R. J., Minshew, N. J., Melhem, N. M., Keshavan, M. S., & Hardan, A. Y. (2009) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s0033291708004376 · Cited by 58 · see citing works
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Clinical Evaluation of Language Fundamentals: Preschool – Second Edition (CELF Preschool-2)
Black, C., DeFelice, M., & Plant, R. (2021) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-91280-6_102527 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
Face‐to‐face interference in typical and atypical development
Riby, D. M., Doherty‐Sneddon, G., & Whittle, L. (2011) · Developmental Science · doi:10.1111/j.1467-7687.2011.01125.x · Cited by 32 · see citing works
Teunisse, J., Roelofs, R. L., Verhoeven, E. W. M., Cuppen, L., Mol, J., & Berger, H. J. C. (2012) · Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/13803395.2012.670209 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
Can Magnetic Resonance Imaging Aid Diagnosis of the Autism Spectrum?: Table 1.
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Autism spectrum disorder in adults: diagnosis, management, and health services development
Murphy, C. M., Wilson, C., Robertson, D., Ecker, C., Daly, E., Hammond, N., Galanopoulos, A., Dud, I., Murphy, D., & McAlonan, G. M. (2016) · Neuropsychiatric Disease and Treatment · doi:10.2147/ndt.s65455 · Cited by 268 · see citing works
“…of ASD by providing robust, reliable, and validated ASD assessment criteria, have been adopted as gold standard ASD assessment tools, 61,129 and are also specifically recommended for assessment of ASD in people with LD. ASD screening questionnaires available for use with adults include…”
Diagnostic accuracy of the ADOS and ADOS-2 in clinical practice
Kamp‐Becker, I., Albertowski, K., Becker, J., Ghahreman, M., Langmann, A., Mingebach, T., Poustka, L., Weber, L., Schmidt, H., Smidt, J., et al. (2018) · European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry · doi:10.1007/s00787-018-1143-y · Cited by 127 · see citing works
“For these reasons, there is growing interest in using neuroimaging methods, electroencephalography [62], or gaze behaviour [63] as tools to determine biomarkers that will predict a diagnosis of ASD to refer to any objective indicator that accurately and reliably identifies ASD or subtypes of ASD [64, 65].”
BackgroundBerggren, S., Fletcher‐Watson, S., Milenkovic, N., Marschik, P. B., Bölte, S., & Jonsson, U. (2017) · Developmental Neurorehabilitation · doi:10.1080/17518423.2017.1305004 · Cited by 122 · see citing works
In Search of Biomarkers to Guide Interventions in Autism Spectrum Disorder: A Systematic Review
Parellada, M., Andreu-Bernabeu, Á., Burdeus-Olavarrieta, M., Cáceres, A. S. J., Urbiola, E., Carpenter, L. L., Kraguljac, N. V., McDonald, W. M., Nemeroff, C. B., Rodríguez, C. I., et al. (2022) · American Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.21100992 · Cited by 123 · see citing works
“The diagnosis itself is defined by a constellation of behaviors in multiple combinations (17) and while all cases must exhibit impairments in the two DSM-5 defined clinical domains, other important features, such as sensory processing impairment, cognitive impairment, language delay, or stereotypic…”
BackgroundWöhr, M. (2014) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2014.03.021 · Cited by 107 · see citing works
Deneault, É., Faheem, M., White, S. H., Rodrigues, D. C., Sun, S., Wei, W., Piekna, A., Thompson, T., Howe, J., Chalil, L., et al. (2019) · eLife · doi:10.7554/elife.40092 · Cited by 96 · see citing works
“Introduction The past two decades of research has determined autism spectrum disorders (ASD) to be clinically (Fernandez and Scherer, 2017; Jones and Lord, 2013; Mahdi et al., 2018) and genetically (De Rubeis et al.”
BackgroundDetecting Autism Based on Eye-Tracking Data from Web Searching Tasks
Yaneva, V., Ha, L. A., Eraslan, S., Yeşilada, Y., & Mitkov, R. (2018) · International Web for All Conference (W4A) · doi:10.1145/3192714.3192819 · Cited by 92 · see citing works
“Different levels of autism severity are exhibited through vari ation in developmental level, language ability and IQ and further complicate the presentation of symptoms [23].”
BackgroundQuantifying Repetitive Speech in Autism Spectrum Disorders and Language Impairment
van Santen, J. P. H., Sproat, R., & Hill, A. P. (2013) · Autism Research · doi:10.1002/aur.1301 · Cited by 87 · see citing works
“It is generally not recommended to use either measure in isolation to determine diagnostic status; in the case of elevated scores on either measure, BEC judgment is considered to be the most accurate [Jones & Lord, 2012].”
BackgroundDuker, L. I. S., Lane, C. J., Williams, M. E., Dawson, M. E., Polido, J. C., & Cermak, S. A. (2014) · BioMed Research International · doi:10.1155/2014/694876 · Cited by 85 · see citing works
“This tool exhibits excellent reliability and validity [22] and has been recommended as a brief measure of expressive language in children with ASD [23].”
BackgroundSungur, A. Ö., Vörckel, K. J., Schwarting, R. K. W., & Wöhr, M. (2014) · Journal of Neuroscience Methods · doi:10.1016/j.jneumeth.2014.05.003 · Cited by 70 · see citing works
Clausen, N. G., Kähler, S., & Hansen, T. G. (2018) · British Journal of Anaesthesia · doi:10.1016/j.bja.2017.11.107 · Cited by 67 · see citing works
Social orienting and social seeking behaviors in ASD. A meta analytic investigation
Hedger, N., Dubey, I., & Chakrabarti, B. (2020) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2020.10.003 · Cited by 63 · see citing works
Age‐related differences in autism: The case of white matter microstructure
Koolschijn, P. C. M. P., Caan, M. W. A., Teeuw, J., Olabarriaga, S. D., & Geurts, H. M. (2016) · Human Brain Mapping · doi:10.1002/hbm.23345 · Cited by 55 · see citing works
Braun, J. M., Froehlich, T. E., Kalkbrenner, A. E., Pfeiffer, C. M., Fazili, Z., Yolton, K. A., & Lanphear, B. P. (2014) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-014-2114-x · Cited by 52 · see citing works
“Continuous measures of autistic-behavior, like the SRS, have desirable properties for prospective cohort studies like this one, but they are not equivalent to clinical diagnoses (Bellinger 2004; Jones and Lord 2013).”
BackgroundSalley, B. J., Gabrielli, J., Smith, C. M., & Braun, M. J. (2015) · Research in Autism · doi:10.1016/j.rasd.2015.08.006 · Cited by 51 · see citing works
“Note that a comprehensive review of these measures is beyond the scope of the current paper and available elsewhere (see for example Falkmer, Anderson, Falkmer, & Horlin, 2013; Jones & Lord, 2013).”
BackgroundReplication of Standardized ADOS Domain Scores in the Simons Simplex Collection
Bal, V. H., & Lord, C. (2015) · Autism Research · doi:10.1002/aur.1474 · Cited by 50 · see citing works
“Thus, calibrated scores for each separate domain may be more useful in such investigations than the calibrated score 584 Hus Bal and Lord/ADOS domain CSS replication INSAR combining both domains [Jones & Lord, 2013].”
BackgroundMethodSelf-citationMultiplex gene and phenotype network to characterize shared genetic pathways of epilepsy and autism
Peng, J. J., Zhou, Y., & Wang, K. (2021) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-020-78654-y · Cited by 47 · see citing works
Gray Matter Characteristics in Mid and Old Aged Adults with ASD
Koolschijn, P. C. M. P., & Geurts, H. M. (2016) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-016-2810-9 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
“%) v2 = .13, p = .724 Age (SD)[range] 51.46 (12.61) [30.04–73.98] 50.14 (11.94) [30.62–73.77] F = .29, p = .592 IQ (SD) [range] 116.31 (16.21) [86–155] 111.59 (15.78) [80–141] F = 2.18, p = .143 MMSE total score (SD) [range] 29.18 (.95) [27–30] 28.98 (1.11) [26–30] F = .91, p = .343 Level of Educational Attainmentb 1/…”
BackgroundInfluentialPeristeri, E., Silleresi, S., & Tsimpli, I. M. (2022) · Autism · doi:10.1177/13623613221075097 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
“These studies have described an intelligence profile of autistic children characterized by higher performance IQ than verbal IQ scores (Giofrè et al., 2019; Jones & Lord, 2013; Kuriakose, 2014; Li et al., 2017; Mayes & Calhoun, 2008; Nader et al., 2015, 2016).”
BackgroundMethodRyu, J., Ha, E., Kim, B., Ha, M., Kim, Y., Park, H., Hong, Y., & Kim, K. (2017) · The Science of The Total Environment · doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.06.227 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
Sadiq, A., Al-Hiyali, M. I., Yahya, N., Tang, T. B., & Khan, D. M. (2022) · IEEE Access · doi:10.1109/access.2022.3146719 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
“An associated measure, the Autism Diagnostic Interview-Revised (ADI-R), is a structured interview with the subject’s parents that covers the subject’s entire developmental history [9].”
Habayeb, S., Tsang, T., Saulnier, C. A., Klaiman, C., JONES, W. R., Klin, A., & Edwards, L. A. (2020) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-020-04730-x · Cited by 27 · see citing works
Merali, Z., Presti-Torres, J., MacKay, J. C., Johnstone, J., Du, L., St-Jean, A., Levesque, D., Kent, P., Schwartsmann, G., Roesler, R., et al. (2014) · Behavioural Brain Research · doi:10.1016/j.bbr.2014.01.008 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
Abraham, J. R., Szoko, N., & Natowicz, M. R. (2019) · Advances in experimental medicine and biology · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-05542-4_12 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
Rosenblau, G., Frolichs, K., & Korn, C. W. (2023) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2023.105181 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Proteomic explorations of autism spectrum disorder
Szoko, N., McShane, A. J., & Natowicz, M. R. (2017) · Autism Research · doi:10.1002/aur.1803 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
“…autism [Betancur, 2011; Sztainberg & Zoghbi, 2016; Willsey & State, 2015] and pertinent information from the diagnostic and medical evaluations of the individuals from whom samples are derived should be available, if possible [Bauman, 2010; Gurrieri, 2012; Jiang et al., 2014; Jones & Lord, 2013].”
Nest, B. N. V., Wagner, A. E., Marrs, G. S., & Fahrbach, S. E. (2017) · Developmental Neurobiology · doi:10.1002/dneu.22492 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
“This was not unlike the challenge of designing suitable quantitative cognitive tests for humans (Jones and Lord, 2013).”
BackgroundWhole-brain structural connectome asymmetry in autism
Yoo, S., Jang, Y., Hong, S., Park, H., Valk, S. L., Bernhardt, B. C., & Park, B. (2024) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2024.120534 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Hierarchy and Reliability of the Preschool Language Scales–Fifth Edition: Mokken Scale Analysis
Hsiao, Y., Qi, C. H., Hoy, R. V., Dale, P. S., Stump, G., Davison, M. D., & Xia, Y. (2021) · Journal of Speech Language and Hearing Research · doi:10.1044/2021_jslhr-21-00043 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
“…with autism spectrum disorder, those who are deaf or hard-ofhearing (Bourque & Goldstein, 2020; Curiel et al., 2018; D’Agostino et al., 2020; Jones & Lord, 2013; Meinzen-Derr et al., 2014; Nevill et al., 2019; Piper et al., 2020; Vernon et al., 2019), and children with typical development…”
BackgroundDAS‐II Cognitive Profiles Are Not Diagnostically Meaningful For Autism: A ROC Analysis
Clements, C. C., Sparding, T., Schultz, R. T., Yerys, B. E., & Watkins, M. W. (2020) · Autism Research · doi:10.1002/aur.2336 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
“Other individual studies frequently reported N > V with Wechsler scales [Giofrè et al., 2019; Jones & Lord, 2013; Kuriakose, 2014; Li, Du, From the Center for Autism Research, The Children’s Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania (C.C.C., R.T.S., B.E.Y.); Psychology Department,…”
BackgroundResultGuttentag, S., Bishop, S. L., Doggett, R. A., Shalev, R. A., Kaplan, M., Dyson, M. W., Cohen, M. T., Lord, C., & Martino, A. D. (2021) · Autism · doi:10.1177/13623613211030071 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
“In light of these challenges, parent-report questionnaires may be used as practical means for initial screeners (Campbell, 2005; Jones & Lord, 2012).”
BackgroundSelf-citationZhong, X., Wang, L., Xu, L., Lian, J., Chen, J., Gong, X., & Shao, Y. (2023) · Brain and Behavior · doi:10.1002/brb3.3238 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
“However, it must be acknowledged that the etiology of ASD is extremely heterogeneous (Jones & Lord, 2013).”
BackgroundARIANNA: A research environment for neuroimaging studies in autism spectrum disorders
Retico, A., Arezzini, S., Bosco, P., Calderoni, S., Ciampa, A., Coscetti, S., Cuomo, S., Santis, L. D., Fabiani, D., Fantacci, M. E., et al. (2017) · Computers in Biology and Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.compbiomed.2017.05.017 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Mu Desynchronisation in Autistic Individuals: What We Know and What We Need to Know
Lockhart, A. K., Sharpley, C. F., & Bitsika, V. (2023) · Review Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s40489-023-00354-w · Cited by 9 · see citing works
“Consequently, neu-robiomarkers for the core symptoms are relevant for investigation (Jones & Lord, 2013).”
Wöhr, M., & Scattoni, M. L. (2013) · Behavioural Brain Research · doi:10.1016/j.bbr.2013.06.014 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Hoffmann, W., Heinzel‐Gutenbrunner, M., Becker, K., & Kamp‐Becker, I. (2015) · Zeitschrift für Kinder- und Jugendpsychiatrie und Psychotherapie · doi:10.1024/1422-4917/a000354 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Computational analysis of language use in autism
Rouhizadeh, M. (2015) · doi:10.6083/m4h70ds5 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
“If one of these measures is above the threshold, then BEC is considered to be the most accurate way to diagnose (Jones and Lord, 2013).”
BackgroundVisual Attention to Social and Non-Social Objects in the Autism Spectrum
Black, J. (2015) · The University of Bath Online Publications Store (The University of Bath) · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Batouli, S. A. H., Razavi, F., Sisakhti, M., Oghabian, Z., Ahmadzade, H., & Doost, M. T. (2021) · Basic and Clinical Neuroscience Journal · doi:10.32598/bcn.2021.1774.3 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“…are alike, which means that each autistic individual shows unique phenotypic heterogeneity in the combination of symptom severity and comorbid conditions (anxiety, depression, social communication disorder, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, epileptic disorders) (Jones & Lord, 2013).”
BackgroundA Proposed Model of Intelligence and Its Implications for Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder
Oakes, L. A., & Smith, T. H. (2016) · UR Research (University of Rochester)
Assessment of Case Reports and Clinical Series
Friedman, J. M. (2018) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-809405-1.00034-1
Characteristics of Autism Spectrum Disorder in Children with Gender Dysphoria
Leef, J. (2019) · TSpace (University of Toronto)
Teaching a Child with Autism to Identify 2D Objects to Increase Receptive Language
Mahmood, A., Mian, I. A., & Toneatto, T. (2022) · Addiction Research · doi:10.33425/2639-8451.1032
“Children with ASC often communicate using pictorial symbols as an alternative to speech [15-17] and demonstrate a relative strength in visuospatial processing compared to language [18].”
BackgroundCarucci, S. (2024) · Medico e Bambino - Pagine Elettroniche · doi:10.53126/mebxxviigu98
Transfer Learning for Improving Neuroimaging-Based Diagnostic Classification
Deshpande, G., Lu, B., Huynh, N., & Rangaprakash, D. (2025) · IEEE Transactions on Computational Biology and Bioinformatics · doi:10.1109/tcbbio.2025.3647485
Terman, E., Sanilevich, L., & Zaballos, C. (2026) · Frontiers in Child and Adolescent Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/frcha.2026.1758514
d’Albis, M.-A. (2020) · theses.fr (ABES) · doi:10.70675/206f79f9z2fd3z499fz9abdz096c72713a99
Diversity of words and words for diversity
Arbey, A., Demily, C., & Soumier, A. (2026) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1834531
“Many biological variables of interest (e.g. neurotransmitter dynamics) cannot be easily measured in the living brain, and clinical assessment therefore relies on behavioral observation and informant-rated scales (41 – 43).”
- Authors
- Jones, R. M., & Lord, C.
- Affiliations
- NewYork–Presbyterian Hospital (US)
- Corresponding author
- Jones, Rebecca M.
- Venue
- Behavioural Brain Research
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2013-08
- Volume
- 251
- Pages
- 113-124
- ISSN
- 0166-4328 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC3711973
- OpenAlex
- W1995814341
- Cited by
- 56
- References
- 160
- Citations by year
- 2026: 2 · 2025: 1 · 2024: 2 · 2023: 3 · 2022: 4 · 2021: 6 · 2020: 5 · 2019: 4 · 2018: 4 · 2017: 7 · 2016: 4 · 2015: 5 · 2014: 7 · 2013: 2
- FWCI
- 0.35
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- Behavioural Brain Research (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (acceptedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institute of Mental Health (R01MH081757, R01MH081873)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Autism Spectrum Disorder Research
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Psychiatry and Mental health › Child Nutrition and Feeding Issues
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Genetics › Genetics and Neurodevelopmental Disorders
- Keywords
- autism spectrum disorder, autism diagnosis, language skills, IQ, psychometric assessment, ASD heterogeneity, neurobiological research
- MeSH terms
- Child, Child Development Disorders, Pervasive, Communication, Diagnosis, Differential, Humans, Language, Neuropsychological Tests, Phenotype, Psychometrics
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