How Does Your Cortex Grow?
Open accessAbstract
Understanding human cortical maturation is a central goal for developmental neuroscience. Significant advances toward this goal have come from two recent strands of in vivo structural magnetic resonance imaging research: (1) longitudinal study designs have revealed that factors such as sex, cognitive ability, and disease are often better related to variations in the tempo of anatomical change than to variations in anatomy at any one time point; (2) largely cross-sectional applications of new surface-based morphometry (SBM) methods have shown how the traditional focus on cortical volume (CV) can obscure information about the two evolutionarily and genetically distinct determinants of CV: cortical thickness (CT) and surface area (SA). Here, by combining these two strategies for the first time and applying SBM in >1250 longitudinally acquired brain scans from 647 healthy individuals aged 3–30 years, we deconstruct cortical development to reveal that distinct trajectories of anatomical change are hidden within, and give rise to, a curvilinear pattern of CV maturation. Developmental changes in CV emerge through the sexually dimorphic and age-dependent interaction of changes in CT and SA. Moreover, SA change itself actually reflects complex interactions between brain size-related changes in exposed cortical convex hull area, and changes in the degree of cortical gyrification, which again vary by age and sex. Knowing of these developmental dissociations, and further specifying their timing and sex-biases, provides potent new research targets for basic and clinical neuroscience.
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Most studies find cortical thickness decreases linearly after age four to five years, although some studies suggest an increase from age six to ten and thinning after ten to twelve.
“Whereas some studies have suggested that cortical thickness increases from age 6 to 10 years and begins to thin after 10–12 years21,20, most studies find that cortical thickness decreases linearly after age 4–5 years25,27,28.”
From Imaging structural and functional brain development in early childhood (2018) · cites this paper as [20]
Cortical thickness probably peaks at one to two years and declines thereafter, while surface area continues to expand well into late childhood or early adolescence.
“Imaging studies of infants and older childen21, 20, 22 have revealed that cortical thickness probably peaks in the range of 1–2 years and declines thereafter, whereas surface area continues to expand well into late childhood or early adolescence.”
From Imaging structural and functional brain development in early childhood (2018) · cites this paper as [20]
The postnatal sex difference in brain volume is probably driven by differences in surface area expansion, because global and regional cortical thickness trajectories are highly similar in males and females.
“These differences are probably driven by differences in surface area expansion, as the maturational trajectories of global and regional cortical thickness are highly similar in males and females4, 20, 27.”
From Imaging structural and functional brain development in early childhood (2018) · cites this paper as [20]
Association cortices reach peak thickness values later than sensory cortices.
“Notably, association cortices reach peak thickness values later than sensory cortices (Brown et al., 2012, Raznahan et al., 2011, Sowell et al., 2004).”
From Quantifying cortical development in typically developing toddlers and young children, 1–6 years of age (2017) · cites this paper as Raznahan et al., 2011
Whole brain surface area follows a nonuniform 2 to 4 fold expansion from birth to adulthood, with peak surface area occurring around 8.1 years in females and 9.7 years in males.
“Whole brain surface area has been observed to follow a nonuniform 2 to 4 fold expansion from birth to adulthood (Hill et al., 2010a, Hill et al., 2010b) with peak surface area occurring around 8.1 years in females and 9.7 years in males (Raznahan et al., 2011).”
From Quantifying cortical development in typically developing toddlers and young children, 1–6 years of age (2017) · cites this paper as Raznahan et al., 2011
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Self-citationMareckova, K., Miles, A., Andryskova, L., Brazdil, M., & Nikolova, Y. S. (2020) · Human Brain Mapping · doi:10.1002/hbm.25163 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
Sex-Based Differences in Cortical and Subcortical Development in 436 Individuals Aged 4–54 Years
Duerden, E. G., Chakravarty, M. M., Lerch, J. P., & Taylor, M. J. (2020) · Cerebral Cortex · doi:10.1093/cercor/bhz279 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
Cross-Diagnosis Structural Correlates of Autistic-Like Social Communication Differences
Kushki, A., Cardy, R. E., Panahandeh, S., Malihi, M., Hammill, C., Brian, J., Iaboni, A., Taylor, M. J., Schachar, R., Crosbie, J., et al. (2021) · Cerebral Cortex · doi:10.1093/cercor/bhab142 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
Gharehgazlou, A., Freitas, C., Ameis, S. H., Taylor, M. J., Lerch, J. P., Radua, J., & Anagnostou, E. (2021) · Cerebral Cortex · doi:10.1093/cercor/bhaa381 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Creze, M., Versheure, L., Besson, P., Sauvage, C., Leclerc, X., & Jissendi‐Tchofo, P. (2014) · Human Brain Mapping · doi:10.1002/hbm.22369 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
- Authors
- Raznahan, A., Shaw, P., Lalonde, F., Stockman, M., Wallace, G. L., Greenstein, D., Clasen, L., Gogtay, N., & Giedd, J. N.
- Affiliations
- National Institute of Mental Health (US)
- National Institutes of Health (US)
- Venue
- The Journal of Neuroscience
- Publisher
- Society for Neuroscience
- Published
- 2011-05-11
- Volume
- 31
- Issue
- 19
- Pages
- 7174-7177
- ISSN
- 0270-6474 (ISSN-L)
- 1529-2401
- PMC
- PMC3157294
- OpenAlex
- W2143463042
- Cited by
- 712
- References
- 25
- Citations by year
- 2026: 30 · 2025: 26 · 2024: 40 · 2023: 47 · 2022: 54 · 2021: 70 · 2020: 63 · 2019: 33 · 2018: 67 · 2017: 43 · 2016: 64 · 2015: 62 · 2014: 41 · 2013: 37 · 2012: 30
- FWCI
- 27.58
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Journal of Neuroscience (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc-sa)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institutes of Health (Z99 MH999999)
- Medical Research Council
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Radiology, Nuclear Medicine and Imaging › Advanced Neuroimaging Techniques and Applications
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Functional Brain Connectivity Studies
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Abilities and Testing
- Keywords
- cortical maturation, cortical development, cortical thickness, cortical surface area, cortical volume, surface-based morphometry, longitudinal brain development, sex differences, cortical gyrification, brain size, convex hull area
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Adult, Analysis of Variance, Brain Mapping, Cerebral Cortex, Child, Child, Preschool, Female, Humans, Image Processing, Computer-Assisted, Longitudinal Studies, Magnetic Resonance Imaging, Male, Organ Size, Sex Factors
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
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