Interleukin-6 Is an Essential Regulator of Satellite Cell-Mediated Skeletal Muscle Hypertrophy
Open accessAbstract
Skeletal muscles adapt to increasing workload by augmenting their fiber size, through mechanisms that are poorly understood. This study identifies the cytokine interleukin-6 (IL-6) as an essential regulator of satellite cell (muscle stem cell)-mediated hypertrophic muscle growth. IL-6 is locally and transiently produced by growing myofibers and associated satellite cells, and genetic loss of IL-6 blunted muscle hypertrophy in vivo. IL-6 deficiency abrogated satellite cell proliferation and myonuclear accretion in the preexisting myofiber by impairing STAT3 activation and expression of its target gene cyclin D1. The growth defect was indeed muscle cell intrinsic, since IL-6 loss also affected satellite cell behavior in vitro, in a STAT3-dependent manner. Myotube-produced IL-6 further stimulated cell proliferation in a paracrine fashion. These findings unveil a role for IL-6 in hypertrophic muscle growth and provide mechanistic evidence for the contribution of satellite cells to this process.
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IL-6 mediates lipid oxidation, induces production of anti-inflammatory interleukins during exercise, and stimulates muscle growth.
“For instance, the pro-inflammatory cytokine IL-6 mediates lipid oxidation [7], induces the production of anti-inflammatory interleukins during exercise (e.g. IL-10 and IL-1ra) [8] and stimulates muscle growth [9].”
In vitro, IL-6 bears anabolic effects by regulating satellite cells' function and enhancing glucose metabolism; loss of IL-6 signaling in myoblasts results in reduced proliferation and migration.
“In vitro, IL-6 bears anabolic effects by regulating satellite cells’ function and enhancing glucose metabolism; furthermore, a loss of IL-6 signaling in myoblasts results in a reduced proliferation and migration [49,50].”
From Main Pathogenic Mechanisms and Recent Advances in COPD Peripheral Skeletal Muscle Wasting (2023) · cites this paper as [50]
Elimination of these cytokines in vivo diminishes muscle repair.
“Elimination of these cytokines in vivo has been shown to diminish muscle repair [118].”
From Macrophage polarization: an opportunity for improved outcomes in biomaterials and regenerative medicine (2012) · cites this paper as [118]
Initially infiltrating M1 macrophages produce chemokines and cytokines (TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6) that are chemoattractant and mitogenic for muscle progenitor cells, including Pax7+ satellite cells.
“Briefly, a number of studies have shown that the chemokines and cytokines (TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6) produced by initially infiltrating M1 macrophages are chemoattractant and mitogenic for muscle progenitor cells, including Pax7+ satellite cells [115–119].”
From Macrophage polarization: an opportunity for improved outcomes in biomaterials and regenerative medicine (2012) · cites this paper as [118]
IL-6 plays important roles in myogenesis.
“Although the myokine IL-6 is mostly recognized for its regulatory effects in lipid and glucose metabolism, IL-6 also plays important roles in myogenesis.”
From Muscle–Organ Crosstalk: The Emerging Roles of Myokines (2020) · cites this paper as [49]
Genetic loss of IL-6 impairs muscle hypertrophy in vivo, whereas myotube-produced IL-6 stimulates muscle cell proliferation in a paracrine fashion.
“Genetic loss of IL-6 impaired muscle hypertrophy in vivo, whereas myotube-produced IL-6 stimulated muscle cell proliferation in a paracrine fashion (49).”
From Muscle–Organ Crosstalk: The Emerging Roles of Myokines (2020) · cites this paper as [49]
TNF-α and IL-6 play an important role in early stages of muscle regeneration following injury by enhancing myoblast proliferation and inhibiting differentiation.
“Although being considered pro-inflammatory, TNF-α and IL-6 also appear to play important role in the early stages of muscle regeneration following injury by enhancing myoblast proliferation and inhibiting differentiation [73,74,75].”
From Potential Roles of n-3 PUFAs during Skeletal Muscle Growth and Regeneration (2018) · cites this paper as [73]
TNF-α and IL-6 inhibition of differentiation involves downregulation of MyoD and Myogenin; TNF-α receptor double knockout and IL-6 knockout mice show impaired myogenic differentiation and hypertrophy during functional overloading.
“This inhibition involves the down regulation of the MRFs, MyoD and Myogenin [73,74,75], with TNF-α receptor double knock out mice [74] and with IL-6 non-specific knock out mice [73] shown to present impaired myogenic differentiation and hypertrophy when compared to wild type mice during functional overloading.”
From Potential Roles of n-3 PUFAs during Skeletal Muscle Growth and Regeneration (2018) · cites this paper as [73]
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“IL-6 knock-out mice show a blunted muscle fiber hypertrophic response and less satellite cell mediated myonuclear accretion compared to wild-type mice following overload induced muscle hypertrophy (Serrano et al., 2008).”
BackgroundInfluentialNF-κB–mediated Pax7 dysregulation in the muscle microenvironment promotes cancer cachexia
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Stimuli and sensors that initiate skeletal muscle hypertrophy following resistance exercise
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“Interleukin-6 (IL-6) has also been revealed to play a role in progenitor cell recruitment (Al-Shanti et al. 2008; Wang et al. 2008) with Serrano et al. (2008) showing that elimination of IL-6 greatly diminishes muscle growth.”
BackgroundInterleukin 6 as an Energy Allocator in Muscle Tissue
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“Thus, IL-6 may have a newly appreciated role in the early inflammatory response induced by muscle injury in addition to its well-known role in satellite cell proliferation and muscle tissue hypertrophy(130, 165).”
BackgroundIlich, J. Z., Kelly, O. J., Inglis, J. E., Panton, L. B., Duque, G., & Ormsbee, M. J. (2014) · Ageing Research Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.arr.2014.02.007 · Cited by 282 · see citing works
“, 2011), indicating it is necessary for atrophy reversal, and perhaps satellite cell proliferation (Serrano et al., 2008).”
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“reported that IL-6 can be produced by myoblasts and promoted myoblast proliferation and hypertrophy intrinsically (14); therefore, there is a possibility of that abnormal myoblasts in IL-6 / mice may also contribute to impaired muscle regeneration.”
Inflammation induced loss of skeletal muscle
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“Like IFN-γ, IL-10 signals mainly through the JAK-STAT pathway with STAT3 being indispensible for IL10 signaling in all IL-10 responsive cells [119,120].”
InfluentialOversecretion of interleukin-15 from skeletal muscle reduces adiposity
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“However, IL-6 also has paracrine muscle hypertrophic actions via stimulation of satellite cell proliferation (62); paradoxically, systemic IL-6 also stimulates muscle atrophy and muscle protein degradation (21, 69).”
BackgroundThe origin of intermuscular adipose tissue and its pathophysiological implications
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“Moreover, it was only recently that IL-6 was shown to play a significant role in SC-mediated muscle hypertrophy (113) and also in the human SC-mediated response to contraction-induced muscle damage (77).”
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“IL-6 seems to be a vital regulator of muscle satellite cell proliferation and myogenic differentiation [247,391,393,394] and can also activate the myotube mTOR pathway and myotube protein synthesis [395].”
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Contractile C2C12myotube model for studying exercise-inducible responses in skeletal muscle
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“It has been well established that exercise has a profound effect on the immune system, and recent evidence indicates various cytokines, such as IL-6, to be secreted from contracting skeletal muscles in vivo (55, 68).”
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The role of exercise-induced myokines in regulating metabolism
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“Along with its anti-inflammatory effect, myotube-produced IL-6 regulates satellite cell-mediated hypertrophic muscle growth (Serrano et al. 2008), induces glycogen breakdown and lipolysis via AMPK (Kelly et al.”
BackgroundEffects of resistance training on the inflammatory response
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“IL-6 has been shown to mediate hypertrophic muscle growth both in vitro and in vivo studies [60].”
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IL-7 is expressed and secreted by human skeletal muscle cells
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“For example, in accordance with a previous study (40), we could not detect altered mRNA expression of IL-6 during myogenesis, indicating that full differentiation is not necessary for secretion of IL-6.”
BackgroundResultLatroche, C., Weiss‐Gayet, M., Muller, L., Gitiaux, C., Leblanc, P., Liot, S., Larbi, S. B., Abou-Khalil, R., Verger, N., Bardot, P., et al. (2017) · Stem Cell Reports · doi:10.1016/j.stemcr.2017.10.027 · Cited by 234 · see citing works
“Oncostatin M is a member of the gp130/IL-6 cytokine family and exerts pleiotropic effects through OSM receptor (OSMR) in mouse and OSMR and leukemia inhibitory factor receptor in human.”
BackgroundInfluentialCurrent Progress in Sports Genomics
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Combination of inflammation-related cytokines promotes long-term muscle stem cell expansion
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Fibro-adipogenic progenitors in skeletal muscle homeostasis, regeneration and diseases
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“IL-6 promotes muscle stem cell proliferation and myogenic progression [73,74].”
BackgroundAdaptation of Mouse Skeletal Muscle to Long-Term Microgravity in the MDS Mission
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“Also, the IL-6 gene deletion has been recently shown to blunt muscle hypertrophy [34] and delay recovery of gastrocnemius muscle from hindlimb unloading atrophy, suggesting a protective role of the interleukin in disuse atrophy [35].”
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“In mammals another cytokine, interleukin-6 (IL-6), which is locally and transiently produced by growing myofibres and associated satellite cells is involved in muscle fibre hypertrophy (Serrano et al., 2008).”
InfluentialPeake, J. M., Gatta, P. A. D., & Cameron‐Smith, D. (2010) · American Journal of Physiology-Regulatory, Integrative and Comparative Physiology · doi:10.1152/ajpregu.00467.2009 · Cited by 182 · see citing works
“IL-6 does not play an acute role in repairing muscle injury (161), but it is involved in muscle hypertrophy (1, 138).”
BackgroundInfluentialNorheim, F., Raastad, T., Thiede, B., Rustan, A. C., Drevon, C. A., & Haugen, F. (2011) · American Journal of Physiology-Endocrinology and Metabolism · doi:10.1152/ajpendo.00326.2011 · Cited by 180 · see citing works
“Furthermore, muscle-produced IL-6 is important for hypertrophic skeletal muscle growth (40).”
Meteorin-like facilitates skeletal muscle repair through a Stat3/IGF-1 mechanism
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Role of satellite cells in muscle growth and maintenance of muscle mass
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Divergent Roles of Inflammation in Skeletal Muscle Recovery From Injury
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Exercise and regulation of adipokine and myokine production
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Cytokine and hormone responses to resistance training
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“Interleukin-6 (IL-6) is locally produced by growing myoWbers and acts as an essential regulator of satellite cell (muscle stem cell)-mediated hypertrophic muscle growth (Hiscock et al. 2004; Keller et al. 2001; Penkowa et al. 2003; Serrano et al. 2008; Vierck et al. 2000).”
BackgroundROS and myokines promote muscle adaptation to exercise
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“IL-6 may be essential for myoblast proliferation and muscle growth (1, 41), whereas IL-6 mutation impairs myogenesis (43).”
BackgroundMyokines mediate the cross talk between skeletal muscle and other organs
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“suggested to regulate muscle growth/hypertrophy (24, 28, 30).”
BackgroundER Stress in Skeletal Muscle Remodeling and Myopathies
Afroze, D., & Kumar, A. (2017) · The FEBS Journal · doi:10.1111/febs.14358 · Cited by 152 · see citing works
Skeletal muscle regeneration and impact of aging and nutrition
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“…and IL6 present obvious candidates as they are both highly expressed in FAPs and have established roles in regulating satellite cells and muscle regeneration (Joe et al., 2010; Lemos et al., 2012; Zhang et al., 2013; Serrano et al., 2008; Strle et al., 2007; Deng et al., 2012; Judson et al., 2013).”
BackgroundRequirement of myomaker-mediated stem cell fusion for skeletal muscle hypertrophy
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“, 2002) or through genetic manipulation of IL-6-dependent effects on SC/MP activity (Guerci et al., 2012; Serrano et al., 2008).”
BackgroundToth, K., McKay, B. R., Lisio, M. D., Little, J. P., Tarnopolsky, M. A., & Parise, G. (2011) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0017392 · Cited by 155 · see citing works
“Importantly, IL-6 knockout mice demonstrated a blunted hypertrophic response and less SC-mediated myonuclear accretion compared to wild-type mice following compensatory hypertrophy [26].”
BackgroundInfluentialLIF is a contraction-induced myokine stimulating human myocyte proliferation
Broholm, C., Laye, M. J., Brandt, C., Vadalasetty, R., Pilegaard, H., Pedersen, B. K., & Scheele, C. C. (2011) · Journal of Applied Physiology · doi:10.1152/japplphysiol.01399.2010 · Cited by 155 · see citing works
“Furthermore, it has become apparent that the production of cytokines and growth factors by skeletal muscle itself contributes to the regulation of muscle growth and metabolism (24, 29, 31).”
BackgroundRole of Interleukin-6 in Vascular Health and Disease
Villar-Fincheira, P., Sanhueza-Olivares, F., Norambuena-Soto, I., Cancino-Arenas, N., Hernandez-Vargas, F., Troncoso, R., Gabrielli, L., & Chiong, M. (2021) · Frontiers in Molecular Biosciences · doi:10.3389/fmolb.2021.641734 · Cited by 154 · see citing works
“Because the secretion of IL-6 is also triggered by glucagon-like peptide 1, an incretin released by food intake (Shirazi et al., 2013), and IL-6 induces suppression of food intake and reduction of body weight, an interesting cross-talk between exercise and food consumption could exist through the…”
BackgroundLe Bihan, M.-C., Bigot, A., Jensen, S. S., Dennis, J. L., Rogowska-Wrzesinska, A., Lainé, J., Gache, V., Furling, D., Jensen, O. N., Voit, T., et al. (2012) · Journal of Proteomics · doi:10.1016/j.jprot.2012.09.008 · Cited by 153 · see citing works
“[7] Serrano AL, Baeza-Raja B, Perdiguero E, Jardi M, Munoz-Canoves P.”
Pathogenesis, classification and treatment of inflammatory myopathies
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“and cultured muscle fibers were found to release IL-6”
BackgroundMuscle-bone interactions: From experimental models to the clinic? A critical update
Laurent, M. R., Dubois, V., Claessens, F., Verschueren, S., Vanderschueren, D., Gielen, E., & Jardí, F. (2015) · Molecular and Cellular Endocrinology · doi:10.1016/j.mce.2015.10.017 · Cited by 152 · see citing works
“Similarly, IL-6 is required for muscle hypertrophy and recovery from muscle atrophy (Serrano et al., 2008; Washington et al., 2011), but chronic direct IL-6 administration induces muscle atrophy (Haddad et al., 2005).”
BackgroundAn Overview About the Biology of Skeletal Muscle Satellite Cells
Forcina, L., Miano, C., Pelosi, L., & Musarò, A. (2019) · Current Genomics · doi:10.2174/1389202920666190116094736 · Cited by 151 · see citing works
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“IL-6, IL-6 receptor (IL-6Ra), cyclin D1, suppressor of cytokine signling-3 (SOCS3) mRNA were measured using quantitative RT-PCR and serum IL-6 protein was measured using an ELISA kit.”
BackgroundInfluentialPeake, J., Roberts, L., Figueiredo, V., Egner, I., Krog, S., Aas, S. N., Suzuki, K., Markworth, J. F., Coombes, J. S., Cameron-Smith, D., et al. (2017) · Journal of Physiology · doi:10.1113/jp272881 · Cited by 147 · see citing works
“2013) and regulating muscle repair (Broussard et al. 2004; Chen et al. 2007; Serrano et al. 2008; Yahiaoui et al. 2008; Zhang et al. 2013).”
BackgroundInfluentialFibroadipogenic progenitors are responsible for muscle loss in limb girdle muscular dystrophy 2B
Hogarth, M., Defour, A., Lazarski, C., Gallardo, E., Díaz-Manera, J., Partridge, T., Nagaraju, K., & Jaiswal, J. (2019) · Nature Communications · doi:10.1038/s41467-019-10438-z · Cited by 133 · see citing works
Intramuscular mechanisms of overtraining
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Beneficial bacteria inhibit cachexia
Varian, B. J., Goureshetti, S., Poutahidis, T., Lakritz, J. R., Levkovich, T., Kwok, C., Teliousis, K., Ibrahim, Y. M., Mirabal, S., & Erdman, S. E. (2016) · Oncotarget · doi:10.18632/oncotarget.7730 · Cited by 146 · see citing works
“This matches earlier studies of cachexia in ApcMIN mice [7-10], and also other recent work showing that feeding of L.”
BackgroundResultMuscle stem cell isolation and in vitro culture for meat production: A methodological review
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The JAK/STAT Pathway in Skeletal Muscle Pathophysiology
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Satellite Cells and Skeletal Muscle Regeneration
Dumont, N. A., Bentzinger, C., Sincennes, M.-C., & Rudnicki, M. (2015) · Comprehensive Physiology · doi:10.1002/j.2040-4603.2015.tb00646.x · Cited by 682 · see citing works
“At physiological concentration, these cytokines are known to stimulate satellite cell activation and proliferation (58, 91, 272).”
McElhaney, J. E., Kuchel, G. A., Zhou, X., Swain, S. L., & Haynes, L. (2016) · Frontiers in Immunology · doi:10.3389/fimmu.2016.00041 · Cited by 139 · see citing works
“By contrast, IL-6 contributes to induction of skeletal muscle stem cell responses after exercise (96), while in its absence recovery from disuse atrophy (97) and overload-induced hypertrophy (98) are decreased.”
BackgroundGuerci, A., Lahoute, C., Hébrard, S., Collard, L., Graindorge, D., Favier, M., Cagnard, N., Batonnet‐Pichon, S., Précigout, G., Garcı́a, L., et al. (2012) · Cell Metabolism · doi:10.1016/j.cmet.2011.12.001 · Cited by 138 · see citing works
“Compensatory hypertrophy (CH) of plantaris muscles was induced as described (Serrano et al., 2008).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialMyostatin and its Regulation: A Comprehensive Review of Myostatin Inhibiting Strategies
Baig, M. H., Ahmad, K., Moon, J. S., Park, S.-Y., Ho Lim, J., Chun, H. J., Qadri, A. F., Hwang, Y. C., Jan, A. T., Ahmad, S. S., et al. (2022) · Frontiers in Physiology · doi:10.3389/fphys.2022.876078 · Cited by 135 · see citing works
Exercise-induced myokines in health and metabolic diseases
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Regenerative function of immune system: Modulation of muscle stem cells
Saini, J., McPhee, J. S., Al-Dabbagh, S., Stewart, C. E., & Al‐Shanti, N. (2016) · Ageing Research Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.arr.2016.03.006 · Cited by 129 · see citing works
“IL-6-/- mice show slower rates of 300 hypertrophic muscle growth than wild-type animals (Serrano et al., 2008).”
BackgroundMechanisms by Which Skeletal Muscle Myokines Ameliorate Insulin Resistance
Balakrishnan, R., & Thurmond, D. C. (2022) · International Journal of Molecular Sciences · doi:10.3390/ijms23094636 · Cited by 132 · see citing works
“Furthermore, muscle fiber-derived myokines are involved in the autocrine/paracrine regulation of satellite cells and promote muscle hypertrophy during exercise [19,20].”
BackgroundSystemic Nutrient and Stress Signaling via Myokines and Myometabolites
Rai, M., & Demontis, F. (2016) · Annual Review of Physiology · doi:10.1146/annurev-physiol-021115-105305 · Cited by 123 · see citing works
Cytokine response of primary human myotubes in an in vitro exercise model
Scheler, M., Irmler, M., Lehr, S., Hartwig, S., Staiger, H., Al-Hasani, H., Beckers, J., Hrabé de Angelis, M., Häring, H.-U., & Weigert, C. (2013) · American Journal of Physiology-Cell Physiology · doi:10.1152/ajpcell.00043.2013 · Cited by 123 · see citing works
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“(2008) have shown a blunted hypertrophic response in skeletal muscle of IL-6 mice following compensatory hypertrophy, suggesting that IL-6 may play a role in skeletal muscle hypertrophy [18].”
BackgroundInfluential
- Authors
- Serrano, A. L., Baeza-Raja, B., Perdiguero, E., Jardí, M., & Muñoz-Cánoves, P.
- Affiliations
- Universitat Pompeu Fabra (ES)
- Venue
- Cell Metabolism
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2008-01
- Volume
- 7
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 33-44
- ISSN
- 1550-4131 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W1997149085
- Cited by
- 873
- References
- 57
- Citations by year
- 2026: 43 · 2025: 56 · 2024: 42 · 2023: 55 · 2022: 71 · 2021: 73 · 2020: 48 · 2019: 55 · 2018: 50 · 2017: 54 · 2016: 45 · 2015: 69 · 2014: 42 · 2013: 48 · 2012: 51
- FWCI
- 9.47
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Licence
- www.elsevier.com/tdm/userlicense/1.0/ (tdm)
- www.elsevier.com/legal/tdmrep-license (tdm)
- www.elsevier.com/open-access/userlicense/1.0/ (vor, 2024 d)
- doi.org/10.15223/policy-017 (stm-asf)
- doi.org/10.15223/policy-037 (stm-asf)
- doi.org/10.15223/policy-012 (stm-asf)
- doi.org/10.15223/policy-029 (stm-asf)
- doi.org/10.15223/policy-004 (stm-asf)
- Locations
- Cell Metabolism (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- Association Française contre les Myopathies (Marató-TV3)
- Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red sobre Enfermedades Neurodegenerativas
- Muscular Dystrophy Association
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Molecular Biology › Muscle Physiology and Disorders
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Oncology › Cytokine Signaling Pathways and Interactions
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Cell Biology › Muscle metabolism and nutrition
- Keywords
- interleukin-6, satellite cells, skeletal muscle hypertrophy, muscle stem cells, STAT3 signaling, cyclin D1, myonuclear accretion, satellite cell proliferation, paracrine signaling, myofiber growth, cytokine deficiency
- MeSH terms
- Animals, Cell Line, Cell Movement, Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay, Hypertrophy, Immunohistochemistry, Muscular Diseases, Blotting, Western, Interleukin-6, Mice, Knockout, Muscle, Skeletal, Muscle Fibers, Skeletal, Cyclin D1, Reverse Transcriptase Polymerase Chain Reaction, Myoblasts, Satellite Cells, Skeletal Muscle, Cell Proliferation, STAT3 Transcription Factor, Mice
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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