The World Federation of ADHD International Consensus Statement: 208 Evidence-based conclusions about the disorder

In the paper

“A population-based birth cohort study of over 5,700 children found no significant differences among children with high, average, or low IQ and ADHD in median age at which ADHD criteria were met, rates of learning disorders, psychiatric disorders, and substance abuse, and rates of stimulant treatment”

What the sources say

• Supported

  Split into 2 atoms — 2 confirmed, 0 partially supported, 0 disputed, 0 misattributed, 0 unverifiable. Expand the claim to see per-atom verdicts.

  cites Katusic et al., 2011 source
• Disputed

  Split into 2 atoms — 0 confirmed, 0 partially supported, 2 disputed, 0 misattributed, 0 unverifiable. Expand the claim to see per-atom verdicts.

  Checked by a reasoning model — may be wrong.

  cites Rommelse et al., 2017 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured

In the paper

“it disappears after adjusting for family history of ADHD which indicates that the association between maternal smoking during pregnancy and ADHD is due to familial or genetic factors that increase the risk for both smoking and ADHD”

What the sources say

• Disputed

  The Results (Table 4; page unavailable) report that the maternal-smoking association remained significant after adjustment for maternal and paternal psychiatric history: the adjusted odds ratio for ADHD without comorbidities was 1.59 (95% CI 1.43–1.77). The paper does not report a separate adjustment specifically for family history of ADHD, but its adjusted findings contradict the claim that the association disappeared. The Background discusses familial confounding as a possibility, not an established explanation for the association. (LLM, conf=0.86)

  Checked by a reasoning model — may be wrong.

  cites Joelsson et al., 2016 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Obel et al., 2016 source
• Partly supported

  The Results report that the smoking–ADHD association disappeared in sibling comparisons, supporting familial confounding. But the Methods list no adjustment for family history of ADHD, and the association remained significant after adjustment for measured covariates. The paper therefore does not show that adjusting for ADHD family history specifically removes it, or establish that genetic factors are the cause. (LLM, conf=0.90)

  cites Skoglund et al., 2014 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured

In the paper

“Comparative meta-analyses show that structural grey matter volume reductions in basal ganglia and insula are disorder-specific relative to OCD in 30 data sets with 1,870 participants (Norman et al., 2016) while medial frontal reductions were specific to ASD in 66 data sets with 3,610 participants (Lukito et al., 2020).”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Norman et al., 2016 source
• Disputed

  The Results (Disorder-Differentiating and Shared Brain Structure Abnormalities; page unavailable) report medial frontal grey-matter reduction in ASD relative to controls, but identify medial prefrontal reduction as ADHD-differentiating relative to ASD, particularly in pediatric participants. They therefore do not support calling the structural reduction ASD-specific. The sample-characteristics Results also report 86 structural datasets, not 66. (LLM, conf=0.87)

  Checked by a reasoning model — may be wrong.

  cites Lukito et al., 2020 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured

In the paper

“ADHD can only be diagnosed by a licensed clinician who interviews the parent or caregiver and/or patient to document criteria for the disorder”

• Also stated in: § How is ADHD diagnosed? · plain

  “It cannot be diagnosed by rating scales alone, neuropsychological tests, or methods for imaging the brain.”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites American Psychiatric Association, 2013
• Partly supported

  The Children and adolescents section calls a detailed clinical interview the diagnostic 'gold standard' and says diagnosticians assess symptoms, onset and impairment, using reports from patients or informants. The Adults section likewise describes an interview with the patient and, when available, informant reports. The paper does not state that only a licensed clinician may make the diagnosis. (LLM, conf=0.86)

  cites Faraone et al., 2015 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites World Health Organization, 2018

In the paper

“Meta-analyses indicate that inattention is more strongly associated with academic impairment, low self-esteem, negative occupational outcomes and lower overall adaptive functioning.”

What the sources say

• Partly supported

  The Functional impairment > Symptom dimensions passage reports stronger associations for inattention than hyperactivity-impulsivity with academic impairment across ages and impaired adaptive functioning in children and adolescents. It does not report stronger associations with low self-esteem or negative occupational outcomes, and its adaptive-functioning finding is not stated for adults. Page numbers are unavailable in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.87)

  cites Willcutt et al., 2012 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured

In the paper

“A meta-analysis of nine studies with a total of over 32,000 older adults found a prevalence of 2.2% based on ADHD rating scales, dropping to 1.5% when limited to persons at least fifty years old.”

What the sources say

• Supported

  Section 3.1 reports nine research-diagnosis studies with 32,766 participants. Table 2 reports a pooled prevalence of 2.18% across those studies’ datasets and 1.49% in the sensitivity analysis limited to an age cutoff of 50 or older, matching the cited figures when rounded. (LLM, conf=0.94)

  cites Dobrosavljevic et al., 2020 source

In the paper

“A review of 37 twin studies from the United States, Europe, Scandinavia, and Australia found that genes and their interaction with the environment must play a substantial role in causing ADHD”

What the sources say

• Partly supported

  The 'Evidence for Heritability from family, adoption and twin studies' section reports a mean heritability of 74% across 37 twin studies, supporting a substantial genetic role. The 'Conclusions and Future Directions' section says gene–environment interactions are possible and may account for much of ADHD’s etiology, not that they must play a substantial role. The retrieved passages do not establish the stated geographic range of the 37 studies; page numbers were unavailable. (LLM, conf=0.86)

  cites Faraone and Larsson, 2018 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites Larsson et al., 2014a
• Partly supported

  The Discussion (page not provided) reports high heritability estimates for ADHD, supporting a substantial genetic contribution. But the Introduction describes this as an analysis of sibling and genetic data, not a review of 37 twin studies; the Discussion also says empirical evidence for gene–environment interaction remains limited, rather than establishing a substantial causal role for it in ADHD. (LLM, conf=0.88)

  cites Pettersson et al., 2019 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured

In the paper

“In rare cases, however, ADHD-like symptoms can be caused by extreme deprivation early in life (Kennedy et al., 2016), a single genetic abnormality (Faraone and Larsson, 2018), or traumatic brain injury early in life (Stojanovski et al., 2019).”

What the sources say

• Supported

  The Kennedy et al. citation attaches to the early-deprivation part of the sentence, not the genetic or brain-injury examples. The Discussion describes a persistent ADHD variant in people exposed to severe institutional deprivation early in childhood, and the Key points say adverse long-term outcomes occur in a substantial minority of cases. The Introduction also describes this as evidence for a social/environmental pathway to ADHD. (LLM, conf=0.88)

  cites Kennedy et al., 2016 source
• Supported

  Only the single-genetic-abnormality clause is attributed to Faraone and Larsson. In “The Search for Rare Genetic Variants” (page unavailable), the review describes a chromosome 3 inversion that co-segregated with ADHD symptoms in one family and implicated SLC9A9; it also reports an association between mutations of that gene and ADHD. The other two causes in the sentence have separate citations and are not judged here. (LLM, conf=0.86)

  cites Faraone and Larsson, 2018 source
• Supported

  The Introduction describes attention problems and disinhibited behavior as common sequelae of TBI in youth and reports that some children develop ADHD symptoms after injury. The Discussion adds that the physical insult from TBI may contribute to post-injury ADHD symptoms, supporting the cited clause's cautious causal claim. (LLM, conf=0.87)

  cites Stojanovski et al., 2019 source

In the paper

“Many large epidemiologic and clinical studies show that ADHD often co-occurs with other psychiatric disorders, especially depression, bipolar disorder, autism spectrum disorders, anxiety disorders, oppositional defiant disorder, conduct disorder, eating disorders, and substance use disorders”

What the sources say

• Partly supported

  The Results (Lifetime and 12-month comorbidity, Table 2) report frequent psychiatric comorbidity with ADHD, and the Discussion specifically identifies bipolar disorder and anxiety disorders. The Discussion also discusses substance use disorders, oppositional defiant disorder, conduct disorder, and an association with eating disorders reported by prior research; however, this study did not assess eating disorders, and the passages do not establish the claimed co-occurrence with autism spectrum disorders. (LLM, conf=0.88)

  cites Bernardi et al., 2012 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites Chen et al., 2018c
• Partly supported

  The discussion under Figure 2 explicitly describes ODD and conduct disorder as comorbid with childhood ADHD. The Externalizing Disorders section reports an increased risk of later substance use disorders, not their co-occurrence with ADHD. The paper does not establish frequent co-occurrence with the other listed conditions or document the claimed breadth of epidemiologic and clinical evidence; page numbers were not available in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.86)

  cites Groenman et al., 2017 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured

In the paper

“ADHD impairs the functioning of highly intelligent people, so the disorder can be diagnosed in this group.”

What the sources say

• Partly supported

  The Discussion says ADHD puts children with high IQ at risk for psychosocial outcomes and stresses the importance of diagnosing them. This supports the claim for children, but the study does not establish it for highly intelligent people of all ages. (LLM, conf=0.84)

  cites Katusic et al., 2011 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
• Partly supported

  The Results (page not available) report that attention problems predicted functional impairment at school even in the higher-IQ range, and the Conclusions say such problems warrant clinical concern. The study assessed ADHD-related symptoms in children, not clinical ADHD diagnoses, so it does not directly establish the sentence’s diagnostic conclusion or its application to highly intelligent people generally. (LLM, conf=0.85)

  cites Rommelse et al., 2017 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured

In the paper

“Hyperactive-impulsive symptoms are associated with peer rejection, aggression, risky driving behaviors and accidental injuries.”

What the sources say

• Partly supported

  The Functional impairment > Symptom dimensions passage (page not provided) reports associations between hyperactivity-impulsivity symptoms and overt peer rejection, relational aggression, and more frequent accidental injuries. It does not report an association with risky driving behaviors; a search for driving found no supporting passage in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.88)

  cites Willcutt et al., 2012 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured

In the paper

“although due to increased recognition by clinicians, the disorder is more likely to be diagnosed today than in prior decades.”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Rydell et al., 2018 source
• Partly supported

  The Discussion (page unavailable) reports increased ADHD case identification from 2007 to 2011 and suggests that greater awareness of how ADHD manifests in girls may explain part of that increase. It does not establish that improved clinician recognition generally caused ADHD to be more likely diagnosed today than in prior decades. (LLM, conf=0.82)

  cites Song et al., 2019 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites Xu et al., 2018

In the paper

“large studies from the US and Sweden indicate that ADHD is more likely to have been diagnosed in recent years, which reflects changes in administrative and clinical practices”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Rydell et al., 2018 source
• Partly supported

  The Introduction (page unavailable) reports rising ADHD identification among U.S. children from 2007 to 2011. The paper does not report a Swedish study, and its Discussion (page unavailable) argues against relaxed clinical diagnostic standards as the explanation for the increase during that period; it does not establish a change in administrative practice as the cause. (LLM, conf=0.88)

  cites Song et al., 2019 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites Xu et al., 2018

In the paper

“Another meta-analysis, covering 20 studies with a combined total of 794 individuals, found a very small increase in ADHD symptoms, but only when rated by parents, not by teachers or other observers”

What the sources say

• Partly supported

  The Results (Synthetic Food Additives, Parent Reports) report 20 studies with 794 participants and a small parent-rated effect (g = 0.18). The Teacher/Observer Reports section finds no significant effect when those reports are pooled, but does find a reliable effect in studies confined to food colors. Thus, “only” parent ratings overstates the finding, and the 794 participants are the parent-report sample. (LLM, conf=0.88)

  cites Nigg et al., 2012 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured

In the paper

“Very large studies of families suggest that ADHD shares genetic or familial causes with autoimmune diseases (Li et al., 2019), hypospadias (Butwicka et al., 2015), and intellectual disability (Faraone and Larsson, 2018).”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites Li et al., 2019
• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Butwicka et al., 2015 source
• Supported

  The “ADHD’s Clinical Features & Course” section reports that people with intellectual disability and their relatives had increased ADHD risk. It also says genetic factors accounted for 91% of the correlation between ADHD and intellectual-disability liabilities, supporting the portion attributed to Faraone and Larsson. (LLM, conf=0.93)

  cites Faraone and Larsson, 2018 source

In the paper

“The polygenic risk for ADHD predicts ADHD symptoms in the population suggesting that the genetic causes of ADHD as a disorder, also influence lower levels of ADHD symptoms in the population”

What the sources say

• Supported

  The Discussion states that polygenic risk for ADHD has been associated with inattentive and hyperactive/impulsive traits below clinical thresholds in the population. It also reports genetic concordance between ADHD and population-level ADHD-related traits, supporting the sentence’s suggested overlap in genetic causes. No page number is provided in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.91)

  cites Demontis et al., 2019 source
• Supported

  The Results (PRS Analyses; page not provided) report that ADHD polygenic risk scores were associated with ADHD traits and that the association remained significant after excluding individuals diagnosed with ADHD. The Discussion (page not provided) interprets the findings as evidence that genetic risks for psychiatric disorders are shared with milder symptom levels in the population. (LLM, conf=0.94)

  cites Taylor et al., 2019 source

In the paper

“They identified many genetic risk variants, each having a small effect on the risk for the disorder”

What the sources say

• Supported

  The Results section reports 304 significant genetic variants across 12 ADHD risk loci. The Discussion describes the risk-increasing effects of the index variants at those loci as modest, with odds ratios of 1.077–1.198. The claim is a fair paraphrase of those findings. (LLM, conf=0.91)

  cites Demontis et al., 2019 source

In the paper

“ADHD can also be the result of rare single gene defects (Faraone and Larsson, 2018) or abnormalities of the chromosomes (Cederlof et al., 2014).”

What the sources say

• Supported

  The Conclusions and Future Directions section states that, in rare cases, a single genetic defect may lead to ADHD. The chromosomal-abnormalities clause in the citing sentence is attributed to a different source. (LLM, conf=0.94)

  cites Faraone and Larsson, 2018 source
• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Cederlof et al., 2014 source

In the paper

“In the population, those with a high polygenic risk for ADHD are more likely to have been diagnosed with ADHD (Li, 2019), anxiety or depression (Martin et al., 2018).”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites Li, 2019
• Supported

  The Discussion (page unavailable) states that higher ADHD polygenic risk scores were associated with increased risk of anxiety and depression in children from the general population. The citation to Martin et al. supports the anxiety-or-depression portion of the sentence; the ADHD-diagnosis portion is cited to Li (2019). (LLM, conf=0.90)

  cites Martin et al., 2018 source

In the paper

“The polygenic risk for ADHD is associated with general psychopathology (Brikell et al., 2020) and several psychiatric disorders (Lee PH, 2019).”

What the sources say

• Supported

  The Results (General factor model; page not provided) report that higher ADHD polygenic risk scores were significantly associated with the general childhood psychopathology factor. The separate claim about several psychiatric disorders is attributed to Lee PH (2019), not to Brikell et al. (LLM, conf=0.94)

  cites Brikell et al., 2020 source
• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites Lee PH, 2019

In the paper

“A countrywide population study using Danish national registers looked at over 630,000 youths and found dose-response relationships between lower parental educational attainment, parental unemployment, and parental relative poverty and higher risk of ADHD in offspring. Combinations of social disadvantages had cumulative risks.”

What the sources say

• Supported

  The Study setting and sample section reports Danish national-register data for more than 630,000 children. The Results section explicitly describes dose-response relationships for all three parental disadvantages and reports increased ADHD risk for combinations of them. The paper describes these as associations, as does the citing sentence. (LLM, conf=0.94)

  cites Keilow et al., 2020 source

In the paper

“A Danish national register longitudinal cohort study of a million people found that Rutter’s indicators of adversity were predictive of ADHD. Out-of-home care was strongly predictive; low social class, paternal criminality, maternal mental disorder, and severe marital discord were moderately predictive. Large family size had no effect (Ostergaard et al., 2016).”

What the sources say

• Supported

  The Methods describe a Danish register-based cohort of 994,407 children. The Results show elevated ADHD hazard ratios for low social class, severe marital discord, paternal criminality, and maternal mental disorder; the Discussion identifies out-of-home care as the strongest predictor and says large family size was not significantly associated with ADHD. Thus, “no effect” is supported as a report of no statistically significant association, not proof of zero effect. (LLM, conf=0.92)

  cites Ostergaard et al., 2016 source

In the paper

“A meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials (RCTs) with preschoolers found that cognitive training led to moderate improvement in working memory (23 studies, over 2,000 participants) and small-to-moderate improvement in inhibitory control (26 studies, over 2,200 participants) (Pauli-Pott et al., 2020).”

What the sources say

• Partly supported

  Table 3 (Results > Working memory; page not provided) reports improvement in working memory across 23 studies (d = 0.46) and in cool inhibitory control across 26 studies (d = 0.30), supporting the stated effect sizes. The ADHD/ODD subgroup results come from only five and four studies, respectively, so the 23- and 26-study findings should not be presented as findings specifically for preschoolers with ADHD. The cited Results passages do not establish the stated participant totals of over 2,000 and over 2,200. (LLM, conf=0.86)

  cites Pauli-Pott et al., 2020 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured

In the paper

“An analysis of structural magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) data from 36 cohorts with a total of over 4,100 participants found slightly reduced total cortical surface area in children with ADHD. The same team found some subcortical regions of the brain were smaller in children with ADHD, mainly in frontal, cingulate and temporal regions with some reductions in cortical thickness in temporal regions”

What the sources say

• Partly supported

  The Results (Effect of age; page unavailable) report smaller subcortical volumes in children with ADHD and no significant case–control differences in adults, but they do report a significant hippocampal difference in adolescents. The Methods (Contributing studies and Neuroimaging; page unavailable) describe 23 cohorts and measurements of subcortical volumes, not the claimed 36 cohorts, total cortical surface area, or cortical thickness. The reported effect sizes are small, but this source does not support the cortical findings attributed to it. (LLM, conf=0.90)

  cites Hoogman et al., 2017 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
• Partly supported

  The Results report slightly smaller total cortical surface area in children with ADHD, especially in frontal, cingulate, and temporal regions, and no significant cortical differences in adolescents or adults. The Discussion describes the effects as small. But the cited paper identifies those regions as cortical, not subcortical; its Introduction only refers to an earlier study of subcortical volumes whose differences were largely restricted to childhood. (LLM, conf=0.88)

  cites Hoogman et al., 2019 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured

In the paper

“A pair of meta-analyses found no difference in serum iron levels in youths with ADHD (six studies, 617 participants) but small-to-moderate reductions in serum ferritin, a protein that stores iron (ten studies, over 2,100 participants)”

• Also stated in: § Environmental Correlates of ADHD: Nutrient Deficiencies · plain

  “Another pair of meta-analyses likewise found no difference in serum iron levels (six studies, over 1,700 participants) but small-to-moderate reductions in serum ferritin (12 studies, over 6,000 participants)”

What the sources say

• Supported

  The Abstract Results report six serum-iron studies (617 participants) with no association with ADHD, and ten serum-ferritin studies (2,191 participants) with lower levels in ADHD cases. The ferritin effect size (SMD −0.40) supports the description of a small-to-moderate reduction. (LLM, conf=0.94)

  cites Wang et al., 2017 source
• Partly supported

  The Results (pages not provided) report no statistically significant serum-iron difference in the main analysis and lower serum ferritin in children with ADHD (Hedges’ g = −0.246). The study and participant counts in the citing sentence do not match this paper’s analyses: it reports 9 iron datasets with 1,788 children and 19 ferritin datasets with 6,251 children. Its iron finding also became significant after one study was removed in a sensitivity analysis. (LLM, conf=0.88)

  cites Tseng et al., 2018 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured

In the paper

“A meta-analysis found that compared with typically developing people, children and adolescents with unmedicated ADHD were about 20% more likely to be overweight or obese (15 studies, over 400,000 participants), and adults with unmedicated ADHD almost 50% more likely to be overweight or obese (9 studies, over 45,000 participants) (Nigg et al., 2016). Meta-analyses of twelve studies with over 180,0”

What the sources say

• Partly supported

  The Meta-analysis Results (page unavailable) report higher odds of overweight/obesity with ADHD, an association larger in adults than in children, and an odds ratio of 1.30 in studies controlling for stimulant medication. They do not establish the quoted age-specific percentages or study counts for unmedicated people, a 40% obesity figure, or that medicated people with ADHD are indistinguishable from controls. The paper instead describes medication-controlled analyses as its best estimate of risk in untreated individuals. (LLM, conf=0.88)

  cites Nigg et al., 2016 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites Cortese et al., 2016b

In the paper

“An analysis of structural magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) data from 48 cohorts with a total of over 12,000 participants showed that ADHD participants had smaller hippocampus volume relative to OCD which was related to IQ differences and smaller intracranial volume relative to ASD and OCD patients (Boedhoe et al., 2020).”

What the sources say

• Partly supported

  The Results (Disease-specific subcortical and cortical differences) report smaller hippocampal volume in children with ADHD than in children with OCD, and smaller intracranial volume in children and adolescents with ADHD than in those with ASD or OCD. The Discussion says IQ differences may explain the hippocampal finding; it does not establish that relationship. The citing sentence omits the age limits and says 48 cohorts, whereas the Methods report 151 cohorts. (LLM, conf=0.89)

  cites Boedhoe et al., 2020 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured

In the paper

“Meta-analyses and systematic reviews showed that the medications used to treat ADHD are not associated with observed deficits in brain structure (Hoogman et al., 2017; Hoogman et al., 2019; Lukito et al., 2020; Norman et al., 2016; Spencer et al., 2013), but with improved brain function, most prominently in inferior frontal and striatal regions (Hart et al., 2013; Lukito et al., 2020; Norman et al”

What the sources say

• Partly supported

  The Results (Effect of medication) found no subcortical volume differences between participants with ADHD who had and had not used stimulant medication, and the Discussion says the observed brain differences were not attributable to medication effects. This supports the structural part of the citation, but the study examined stimulant use and measured brain volumes, not all ADHD medications or all structural deficits; the Discussion also cautions that its cross-sectional design was not optimal for testing medication effects. The claim about improved brain function is attached to other citations, not this one. (LLM, conf=0.84)

  cites Hoogman et al., 2017 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
• Partly supported

  The Discussion (page unavailable) reports no significant association between psychostimulant medication and cortical dimensions, supporting the structural part of the citation. It cautions against firm conclusions because the study was observational, and the Results note nominally lower frontal surface area among current stimulant users. This source therefore does not establish the broader claim that ADHD medications are not associated with brain-structure deficits; the brain-function clause is attributed to other citations. (LLM, conf=0.87)

  cites Hoogman et al., 2019 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
• Partly supported

  The Results (ADHD VBM and ADHD fMRI; page unavailable) associate current or lifetime psychostimulant exposure with increased orbitofrontal gray-matter volume and lifetime exposure with greater left inferior frontal activation. They do not report medication-associated improvement in striatal function. The findings concern psychostimulant exposure, rather than all ADHD medications, and are associations rather than demonstrated treatment effects. (LLM, conf=0.85)

  cites Lukito et al., 2020 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured

In the paper

“A population-based cohort study of over 900,000 Danish children found that epilepsy was associated with a 2.7-fold increased risk for ADHD (Bertelsen et al., 2016). Another population-based cohort study, of over 12,000 Taiwanese, reported that epilepsy was associated with a 2.5-fold increased risk for ADHD. Conversely, a linked cohort study of over 18,000 Taiwanese found ADHD was associated with a”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Bertelsen et al., 2016 source
• Supported

  The Abstract Results report an adjusted hazard ratio of 2.54 for subsequent ADHD in the epilepsy cohort and 3.94 for subsequent epilepsy in the ADHD cohort. The Abstract Methods identify both as Taiwanese population-based cohorts with the stated approximate sizes. The 2.7-fold Danish finding and family-risk findings are not attributed to this source in the supplied citing text. (LLM, conf=0.93)

  cites Chou et al., 2013 source
• Partly supported

  The Results and Discussion (page unavailable) report an approximately 3.5-fold association between epilepsy and ADHD, risk differences across relatives, and genetic and environmental contributions. The Introduction reports a fourfold epilepsy risk among people with ADHD as a previous finding. This paper does not report the claimed 2.7-fold or 2.5-fold estimates as its own findings; the supplied citing sentence attributes the 2.7-fold estimate to Bertelsen et al. (LLM, conf=0.87)

  cites Brikell et al., 2018 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured

In the paper

“A meta-analysis of 21 functional MRI studies with 607 participants found that those with ADHD showed consistent and replicable under-activation in typical regions of inhibitory control such as right inferior frontal cortex, supplementary motor area and the basal ganglia relative to typically developing individuals (Hart et al., 2013). The inferior frontal under-activation findings were replicated”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Hart et al., 2013 source
• Partly supported

  The Introduction reports prior meta-analyses finding ADHD-related underactivation in right inferior frontal gyrus, supplementary motor area and striatum during cognitive control. This paper’s Results replicate right inferior frontal and caudate underactivation during motor response inhibition, but report supplementary motor area underactivation only for the broader cognitive-control analysis, not inhibition specifically. The 21-study sample cited in the printed sentence is attributed to Hart et al. (2013), not to this paper. (LLM, conf=0.86)

  cites Lukito et al., 2020 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Norman et al., 2016 source

In the paper

“In a Norwegian national registry study of over 1.2 million males and over 1.2 million females, males with ADHD were 30% more likely to be diagnosed with psoriasis, and women with ADHD more than 50% more likely to be diagnosed with psoriasis, than normally developing controls (Hegvik et al., 2018).”

What the sources say

• Supported

  The Results (Primary analyses) report adjusted odds of psoriasis of 1.31 for males with ADHD and 1.57 for females with ADHD, compared with those without ADHD. The Results (Demographics) list 1,219,669 females in a cohort of 2,500,118, leaving over 1.2 million males. The percentages describe higher adjusted odds, rather than a directly measured increase in probability. (LLM, conf=0.94)

  cites Hegvik et al., 2018 source

In the paper

“The functional under-activations in right inferior frontal cortex and basal ganglia during tasks of cognitive control were disorder-specific relative to OCD in 1,870 participants (Norman et al., 2016), while the inferior frontal dysfunction was specific relative to autism in 3,610 participants (Lukito et al., 2020).”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Norman et al., 2016 source
• Partly supported

  The Results (Disorder-Differentiating and Shared Brain Abnormalities during Cognitive Control) report ADHD-differentiating right inferior frontal underactivation relative to ASD specifically during motor response inhibition. But the Results (Search Results and Sample Characteristics) list 2,693 participants across the cognitive-control fMRI datasets, not 3,610. The OCD comparison belongs to the separately cited Norman et al. (2016), rather than the part attributed to Lukito et al. (LLM, conf=0.88)

  cites Lukito et al., 2020 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured

In the paper

“Another meta-analysis including 130 fMRI studies with 1,914 participants found no convergence except for aberrant function in basal ganglia for neutral fMRI tasks and inferior frontal under-function in males only (Samea et al., 2019).”

What the sources say

• Partly supported

  The Results report 96 studies (68 task-fMRI, 6 resting-state fMRI and 22 structural), yielding 130 individual experiments across 1,914 unique subjects—not 130 fMRI studies. The Conclusion supports the reported lack of general convergence and the two subgroup findings: left pallidum/putamen dysfunction with neutral-stimulus tasks and decreased left inferior frontal activity in males. (LLM, conf=0.91)

  cites Samea et al., 2019 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured

In the paper

“A study of over 36,000 people from the US reported that ADHD increased the risks for problem gambling, spending too much money, reckless driving, and quitting a job without a plan for what to do next”

What the sources say

• Partly supported

  The Results (Impulsive behaviors and number of traumas, Table 3) report higher odds of gambling or overspending problems, reckless driving, and quitting a job without knowing what to do next among adults with ADHD. However, the Method states that 34,653 respondents were re-interviewed, not over 36,000. The paper reports associations rather than establishing that ADHD caused these behaviors. (LLM, conf=0.93)

  cites Bernardi et al., 2012 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured

In the paper

“Using nationwide registers in Denmark, a cohort study of 2.9 million people reported a fourfold higher rate of suicide attempts and deaths in patients with ADHD. The risk was over tenfold in those with ADHD plus another psychiatric diagnosis”

What the sources say

• Supported

  The Abstract reports a Danish nationwide register cohort of 2.9 million people and defines suicidal behaviour as suicide attempts and deaths by suicide. It reports a 4.7-fold higher rate for people with ADHD and a 10.4-fold higher rate for those with ADHD and a comorbid psychiatric disorder, consistent with the citing sentence’s approximate figures. (LLM, conf=0.92)

  cites Fitzgerald et al., 2019 source

In the paper

“A meta-analysis comprising 21 studies and over 19,500 prison inmates found that the prevalence of ADHD in prisons based on interview diagnoses was 20.5% with no differences observed between males and females or adolescents and adults”

What the sources say

• Supported

  The Results > Prevalence section reports an observed ADHD prevalence of 20.5% among 19,575 inmates across 21 studies using interview diagnoses. The same section reports no significant differences between males and females or between youths and adults. (LLM, conf=0.93)

  cites Young et al., 2015 source

In the paper

“A meta-analysis of twelve studies covering over 5,400 people found that those with ADHD were almost three times more likely to be nicotine-dependent. Combining eleven studies with almost 2,400 participants, those with ADHD were 50% more likely to develop a drug or alcohol use disorder than those without ADHD”

What the sources say

• Partly supported

  Split into 2 atoms — 1 confirmed, 1 partially supported, 0 disputed, 0 misattributed, 0 unverifiable. Expand the claim to see per-atom verdicts.

  cites Lee et al., 2011 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured

In the paper

“A nationwide cohort study of over 50,000 youths with ADHD and an equal number of age-, sex-, and comorbidity-matched controls drawn from Taiwan’s National Health Insurance Research Database reported that having ADHD was associated with a more than three-quarters greater likelihood of burn injury.”

What the sources say

• Supported

  Split into 2 atoms — 2 confirmed, 0 partially supported, 0 disputed, 0 misattributed, 0 unverifiable. Expand the claim to see per-atom verdicts.

  cites Yeh et al., 2020 source

In the paper

“A study using a nationally representative American sample of over 5,000 adults found that those with ADHD were over twice as likely to be perpetrators of physical dating violence, and 65% more likely to be victims of such violence”

What the sources say

• Partly supported

  Methods > Analysis reports a nationally representative US sample of 5,112 adults, and the Discussion says dating-violence risk was particularly high among those with ADHD. The Results discuss victimization and perpetration, but the passages in our copy do not establish the claimed ADHD-specific figures—over twice as likely to perpetrate and 65% more likely to be victimized. The study concerns dating violence before age 21, reported retrospectively by adults. (LLM, conf=0.86)

  cites McCauley et al., 2015 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured

In the paper

“A Swedish cohort study of over 25,000 ADHD patients found a one-third reduction in criminality among men receiving ADHD medication, and a 40% reduction for women”

What the sources say

• Supported

  The Methods report a Swedish cohort of 25,656 people with ADHD. The Abstract Results report criminality rates 32% lower for men and 41% lower for women during medication periods than during non-medication periods—approximately one-third and 40%, respectively. These are associations from within-individual comparisons. (LLM, conf=0.94)

  cites Lichtenstein et al., 2012 source

In the paper

“A meta-analysis found dexmethylphenidate strongly reduced youth ADHD symptoms relative to placebo (seven studies, almost 1,500 participants), and had three times the clinical response rate (four studies, over 600 participants)”

What the sources say

• Partly supported

  The Results (Synthesis of results; page unavailable) report substantially improved ADHD rating-scale scores with dexmethylphenidate and a pooled clinical-response risk ratio of 3.10 versus placebo. The cited study counts and participant totals are not supported as stated: the Abstract (Results; page unavailable) says the entire review included 1,124 children and adolescents, fewer than the claimed almost 1,500 for the symptom analysis. (LLM, conf=0.91)

  cites Maneeton et al., 2015 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured

In the paper

“German health insurance records, including over 25,000 patients with ADHD, indicate that patients with ADHD cost roughly €1,500 more annually than those without ADHD.”

What the sources say

• Supported

  The Methods summary (p. 1) identifies 25,300 ADHD patients in German statutory health insurance claims. The Results (p. 1) report approximately €1,500 higher annual costs per ADHD patient and additional costs from comorbid conditions of up to €2,800; the Medical costs section (p. 3) gives the overall difference as €1,508. (LLM, conf=0.95)

  cites Libutzki et al., 2019 source

In the paper

“A nationwide longitudinal cohort study using the Swedish national registers found that among more than 38,000 individuals with ADHD, ADHD medication was associated with a greater than 40% reduction in the risk for depression three years later. The risk decreased with the duration of ADHD medication use. Depression was 20% less common when patients received ADHD medication compared with periods”

What the sources say

• Supported

  Split into 2 atoms — 2 confirmed, 0 partially supported, 0 disputed, 0 misattributed, 0 unverifiable. Expand the claim to see per-atom verdicts.

  cites Chang et al., 2016 source

In the paper

“During medicated periods both groups had a greater than 10% reduction in unintended injuries, and a greater than 70% reduction in traumatic brain injuries”

What the sources say

• Partly supported

  Split into 2 atoms — 1 confirmed, 1 partially supported, 0 disputed, 0 misattributed, 0 unverifiable. Expand the claim to see per-atom verdicts.

  cites Ghirardi et al., 2020 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured

In the paper

“A Swedish registry study of over 650,000 students found that treatment with ADHD medication for three months resulted in a more than nine-point gain in grade point sum (on a scale of 0 to 320); treatment was associated with an increase in the probability of completing upper secondary school by two-thirds”

What the sources say

• Partly supported

  The Abstract (Method and Results) reports 657,720 Swedish students and an association between three months of ADHD medication and a 9.35-point higher grade point sum on a 0–320 scale. But the Results (Sensitivity analyses) reports an adjusted odds ratio of 0.89 for *not completing* upper secondary school, not a two-thirds increase in the probability of completing it. The registry study also reports an association, so “resulted in” overstates the evidence for a causal gain. (LLM, conf=0.91)

  cites Jangmo et al., 2019 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured

In the paper

“Their direct healthcare costs in the year following diagnosis averaged €4,000. Despite explicit German guidelines recommending ADHD medication, only a third were prescribed medication, dropping to one eighth four years later. Two-thirds received psychotherapy. The authors concluded that “guideline recommendations are not yet comprehensively implemented in everyday routine care””

What the sources say

• Supported

  Split into 3 atoms — 3 confirmed, 0 partially supported, 0 disputed, 0 misattributed, 0 unverifiable. Expand the claim to see per-atom verdicts.

  cites Libutzki et al., 2020 source

In the paper

“A meta-analysis of nine RCTs comprising 1,463 patients found that discontinuing medications led to a worsening in quality of life for children and adolescents but not adults.”

What the sources say

• Partly supported

  Split into 2 atoms — 0 confirmed, 2 partially supported, 0 disputed, 0 misattributed, 0 unverifiable. Expand the claim to see per-atom verdicts.

  cites Tsujii et al., 2020 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured

In the paper

“A Swedish population-based study of 38,000 people with ADHD found a 20% decline in suicide related events among those prescribed stimulants during periods when they were under treatment as opposed to during periods when they were not under treatment. No such benefit was found for non-stimulant medications”

What the sources say

• Supported

  Split into 2 atoms — 2 confirmed, 0 partially supported, 0 disputed, 0 misattributed, 0 unverifiable. Expand the claim to see per-atom verdicts.

  cites Chen et al., 2014 source

In the paper

“Five medications for ADHD were associated with significantly worse anorexia (atomoxetine, d-amphetamine, lisdexamphetamine, methylphenidate, modafinil), four with insomnia (d-amphetamine, lisdexamphetamine, methylphenidate, modafinil), three with weight loss (atomoxetine, methylphenidate, modafinil), two each with abdominal pain (methylphenidate, guanfacine), discontinuation due to adverse event (”

What the sources say

• Supported

  The meta-review’s table (p. 12) lists QT prolongation among adverse effects significantly associated with guanfacine (Hedges’ g = 0.33, 95% CI 0.12–0.54). The paper describes its population as children and adolescents with mental disorders (p. 1). (LLM, conf=0.93)

  cites Solmi et al., 2020 source

In the paper

“Five medications for ADHD were associated with significantly worse anorexia (atomoxetine, d-amphetamine, lisdexamphetamine, methylphenidate, modafinil), four with insomnia (d-amphetamine, lisdexamphetamine, methylphenidate, modafinil), three with weight loss (atomoxetine, methylphenidate, modafinil), two each with abdominal pain (methylphenidate, guanfacine), discontinuation due to adverse event (”

What the sources say

• Supported

  The Discussion (p. 14) states that sedation was observed with the alpha-2 agonists clonidine and guanfacine. The paper identifies itself as a meta-review of psychotropic-medication adverse effects in children and adolescents with mental disorders (p. 1). (LLM, conf=0.94)

  cites Solmi et al., 2020 source

In the paper

“A meta-analysis of methylphenidate treatment studies reported a 55% increase in adverse events relative to placebo, none life-threatening (11 studies, over 2,100 youths), but a fivefold increase in anorexia (3 studies, 613 youths), and more than fourfold increase in insomnia (4 studies, 749 youths) (Ching et al., 2019).”

What the sources say

• Partly supported

  The Adverse Effects section reports that methylphenidate-treated participants were 1.55 times more likely than placebo recipients to experience adverse events; it also reports 5.11 times the risk of anorexia and 4.66 times the odds of insomnia. The Study section says no deaths were reported, but it does not establish that none of the adverse events were life-threatening; it notes that less common events were not examined. (LLM, conf=0.87)

  cites Ching et al., 2019 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured

In the paper

“It found moderate reductions in ADHD symptoms in both children and adolescents (6 RCTs, 240 participants) and adults (6 RCTs, 339 participants), but half the studies did not use active controls.”

What the sources say

• Supported

  The children/adolescents results section reports that meditation-based therapies reduced combined ADHD core symptoms more than control conditions, with a moderate effect size (Hedges’ g = −0.44). The provided copy does not give a page number. (LLM, conf=0.94)

  cites Zhang et al., 2018 source

In the paper

“It found moderate reductions in ADHD symptoms in both children and adolescents (6 RCTs, 240 participants) and adults (6 RCTs, 339 participants), but half the studies did not use active controls.”

What the sources say

• Supported

  The Discussion (Original article) reports that meditation-based therapies were more efficacious than control conditions for combined ADHD symptoms in adults, with a moderate mean effect size. The Abstract gives the adult estimate as Hedges’ g = −0.66 across six RCTs (n=339). (LLM, conf=0.93)

  cites Zhang et al., 2018 source

In the paper

“a meta-analysis of 21 studies with over 1,600 participants showing that only about one in six youths with ADHD still meet full diagnostic criteria for ADHD at age 25, and about half show signs of residual impairment”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Faraone et al., 2006 source

In the paper

“In adolescence and young adulthood, many individuals with a history of childhood ADHD continue to be impaired by the disorder, although they often show reduced hyperactivity and impulsivity while retaining symptoms of inattention”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Faraone et al., 2006 source

In the paper

“A meta-analysis found no significant effect of three classes of air pollutants –particulate matter (six studies, over 51,000 persons) and nitrogen oxides (five studies, over 51,000 persons)”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites Zhang et al., 2020b

In the paper

“A pair of meta-analyses found small correlations between lead burden and inattention symptoms (27 studies, over 9,300 youths) and hyperactivity-impulsivity symptoms (23 studies, over 7,800 youths)”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Goodlad et al., 2013 source

In the paper

“It found that spikes in nitrogen dioxide, sulphur dioxide, and particulate matter were associated, respectively, with 47%, 27%, and 12% increases in ADHD related hospital admissions in succeeding days.”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Park et al., 2020 source

In the paper

“Misconceptions about ADHD stigmatize affected people, reduce credibility of providers, and prevent/delay treatment.”

• Also stated in: § Introduction · plain

  “correct misconceptions about the disorder that stigmatized affected people, reduced the credibility of health care providers, and prevented or delayed treatment of individuals challenged by the disorder”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites DosReis et al., 2010 source
• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Horton-Salway, 2013 source
• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites McLeod et al., 2007 source

In the paper

“the diagnosis is useful for predicting a) additional problems the patient may have (e.g., difficulties learning in school); b) future patient outcomes (e.g., risk for future drug abuse); c) response to treatment (e.g., medications and psychological treatments); and d) features that indicate a consistent set of causes for the disorder”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Faraone, 2005 source

In the paper

“Some have strong evidence for a causal role but, for most, the possibility remains that these associations are due to correlated genetic and environmental effects.”

In the paper

“A meta-analysis of 37 studies with more than 2,300 participants found a small-to-moderate association between ADHD and risky decision-making (Dekkers et al., 2016). Another meta-analysis, combining 22 studies with 3,850 children and adolescents, found those with ADHD exhibited moderately greater impulsive decision-making overall on delay discounting and delay of gratification tasks (Patros et al.,”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Dekkers et al., 2016 source
• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Patros et al., 2016 source

In the paper

“These differences are not caused by drug treatment and, for some patients, diminish or change as patients grow out of the disorder.”

In the paper

“A meta-analysis of 49 studies and over 8,200 children and adolescents found moderate impairments in working memory in those with ADHD. These deficits declined with age (Ramos et al., 2020).”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Ramos et al., 2020 source

In the paper

“A nationwide population-based cohort study using Swedish registers and covering more than two million children, 115,000 of them with ADHD, found that maternal preeclampsia during pregnancy is associated with a 15% greater subsequent likelihood of ADHD in offspring, rising to over 40% when the fetus is small for gestational age and exposed to preeclampsia. This pattern in families showed that it is”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Maher et al., 2020 source

In the paper

“A meta-analysis of two large cohort studies with a combined total of over 3.1 million persons found a slight but significant association between maternal hyperthyroidism during pregnancy and ADHD in offspring. A second meta-analysis of four cohort studies encompassing over 3.4 million participants likewise found a slight but significant association between maternal hypothyroidism and ADHD in”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites Ge et al., 2020

In the paper

“It found that after adjusting for a wide range of possible confounders which turned out to have little effect, children of mothers with a single prior miscarriage were 9% more likely to develop ADHD than those of mothers without any miscarriage. Children of mothers with two or more prior miscarriages were 22% more likely to be diagnosed with ADHD. This upward exposure-response trend was”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Wang et al., 2020 source

In the paper

“A Swedish national register study of 1.2 million children found a stepwise increase in the likelihood of ADHD with increasing prematurity. Results were not due to having an ADHD relative or socioeconomic stress (Lindstrom et al., 2011).”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Lindstrom et al., 2011 source

In the paper

“A recent meta-meta-analysis included 34 meta-analyses of neurocognitive profiles in ADHD (all ages) concerning 12 neurocognitive domains. Those with ADHD had moderate impairments in multiple domains (working memory, reaction time variability, response inhibition, intelligence/achievement, planning/organization). Effects were larger in children and adolescents than in adults (Pievsky and McGrath, 2”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Pievsky and McGrath, 2018 source

In the paper

“A Swedish national register cohort study of over 540,000 people found a dose-response relationship between cumulative indicators of adversity in the family and ADHD. A death in the family increased the subsequent likelihood of ADHD by 60%. Substantial parental substance abuse, criminality, or psychiatric disorder each more than doubled the likelihood as did residential instability and household”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Bjorkenstam et al., 2018 source

In the paper

“Another meta-analysis, spanning 21 studies with over 1,900 adults, concluded that ADHD-associated IQ deficits were small and not clinically meaningful (Bridgett and Walker, 2006).”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Bridgett and Walker, 2006 source

In the paper

“Although many of these studies have found differences between groups of people who are and are not diagnosed with ADHD, the differences are typically small and do not dramatically differ between people with ADHD and those with other disorders. They are, therefore, not useful for diagnosing the disorder (Thome et al., 2012).”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Thome et al., 2012 source

In the paper

“A series of meta-analyses found that people with ADHD had small to moderate difficulties with abstract problem solving and working memory (12 studies, 952 persons), focused attention (22 studies, 1,493 persons), sustained attention (13 studies, 963 persons), and verbal memory (8 studies, 546 persons) (Schoechlin and Engel, 2005).”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Schoechlin and Engel, 2005 source

In the paper

“A study of over 80,000 mother-child pairs participating in the Danish National Birth Cohort reported an almost 50% elevated risk of ADHD in children of obese mothers and a doubled risk in children of severely obese mothers (Andersen et al., 2018).”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Andersen et al., 2018 source

In the paper

“A meta-analysis of 137 studies with over 9,400 participants of all ages found ADHD to be associated with moderately lower IQ and reading scores and larger decreases in spelling and arithmetic scores (Frazier et al., 2004).”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Frazier et al., 2004 source

In the paper

“A Swedish national register study of over 2.5 million people found ADHD patients had a threefold greater risk of obesity relative to their non-ADHD siblings and cousins. It also found a familial co-aggregation of ADHD and clinical obesity, the strength of which varied directly with the degree of genetic relatedness (Chen et al., 2018c).”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites Chen et al., 2018c

In the paper

“A meta-analysis of nine studies with over 1,250 research participants found that elevations in the theta/beta on the electroencephalogram cannot be considered a reliable diagnostic measure for ADHD although it may have prognostic value in some patients (Arns et al., 2013).”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Arns et al., 2013 source

In the paper

“In a study of over 2.5 million German youth, those with ADHD were nine times more likely to have metabolic disorders, five times more likely to develop viral pneumonia, four times more likely to have white blood cell disorders, three times more likely to have kidney failure, high blood pressure, or be obese, two and a half times more likely to have type 2 diabetes or migraines, twice as likely to”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites Akmatov et al., 2019

In the paper

“It found a subsequent 29% increased risk of ADHD in the celiac patients, rising to 39% when restricting to adult diagnoses of ADHD. However, when comparing 13,000 children diagnosed with celiac disease to their 18,000 non-celiac siblings, the increases became nonsignificant, suggesting the increases were primarily attributable to confounders (Lebwohl et al., 2020).”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites Lebwohl et al., 2020

In the paper

“Young adults with ADHD were four times more likely to have somatic co-prescriptions and fifteen times more likely to have psychotropic co-prescriptions than normally developing controls. For middle-aged adults (30–49) the odds were six and 21 times greater, respectively, and for older adults, seven and 18 times greater.”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites Zhang et al., 2020a

In the paper

“A Danish national register cohort study of 1.1 million people found that hospitalization for serious infections was associated with a subsequent doubling in the rate of ADHD diagnosis. Among those treated with anti-infective agents, the risk of subsequent diagnosis with ADHD was halved (Kohler-Forsberg et al., 2019).”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Kohler-Forsberg et al., 2019 source

In the paper

“Using Taiwan’s nationwide population-based dataset, over 116,000 children with ADHD were compared with the same number of randomly selected children without ADHD. Those with ADHD were much more likely to have significant abnormalities of the eye: almost 90% more likely to have amblyopia (“lazy eye”), over 80% more likely to have astigmatism, and twice as likely to have heterotropia, in which the”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites Ho et al., 2020
• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites Su et al., 2019

In the paper

“A retrospective analysis of over 650,000 children and adolescents in German diagnosis and prescription databases found ADHD was 40% more likely to be diagnosed among children with type 1 diabetes (T1DM) (Kapellen et al., 2016).”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Kapellen et al., 2016 source
• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Hilgard et al., 2017 source

In the paper

“A Danish national register study of almost a million people found that children with autoimmune disease were 24% more likely to develop ADHD. Maternal autoimmune disease was associated with a 12% greater likelihood of ADHD in their offspring. Paternal autoimmune disease was not associated with any significant effect (Nielsen et al., 2017).”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Nielsen et al., 2017 source

In the paper

“A Swedish national register study of over 1.5 million people found that those with asthma were 45% more likely to have ADHD even after adjustment for relevant variables (Cortese et al., 2018b). A cohort study of almost a million births using the Danish national registers found that children born to asthmatic mothers were 40% more likely to develop ADHD (Liu et al., 2019b).”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites Cortese et al., 2018b
• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites Liu et al., 2019b
• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites van der Schans et al., 2017 source

In the paper

“A longitudinal study using the Taiwan National Health Insurance Research Database enrolled over 35,000 patients with ADHD and over 70,000 age- and sex-matched controls. Adolescents and young adults with ADHD were about three times more likely to develop type 2 diabetes mellitus (Chen et al., 2018b).”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites Chen et al., 2018b
• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites Chen et al., 2018c

In the paper

“A Taiwan nationwide population cohort study of over 8,000 people with ADHD and 32,000 matched controls explored associations with autoimmune diseases. It reported that those with ADHD had well over twice the prevalence of ankylosing spondylitis, ulcerative colitis, and autoimmune thyroid disease, and over 50% greater likelihood of asthma, allergic rhinitis, and atopic dermatitis (Chen et al., 2017”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites Chen et al., 2017a

In the paper

“A meta-analysis of 18 studies with more than 2,500 children and adolescents found a moderate association between sleep-disordered breathing and ADHD (Sedky et al., 2014).”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Sedky et al., 2014 source
• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Lugo et al., 2020 source

In the paper

“A meta-analysis found that maternal pre-existing type 1 diabetes was associated with a small increased risk of ADHD in offspring (4 studies, over five million people). So was paternal pre-existing type 1 diabetes (3 studies, 4.7 million people), and maternal pre-existing type 2 diabetes (2 studies, 2.6 million people) (Zeng et al., 2019).”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Zeng et al., 2019 source
• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites Ji et al., 2018

In the paper

“A meta-analysis found that persons with ADHD attempted suicide at twice the rate of typically developing people (six studies, over 65,000 persons), had over three times the rate of suicidal ideation (23 studies, over 70,000 persons), and over six times the rate of completed suicide (four studies, over 130,000 persons)”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Septier et al., 2019 source

In the paper

“A Taiwanese study of over 20,000 adolescents and young adults with ADHD and over 61,000 age- and sex-matched non-ADHD individuals found that those with ADHD were almost four times as likely to attempt suicide, and over six times as likely to repeat suicide attempts.”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites Huang et al., 2018

In the paper

“In a prospective cohort study of more than 2.6 million Swedes, adults with ADHD had a small increase in premature death, mostly due to accidents and suicide. There was no significant association for children with ADHD”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites Sun et al., 2019b

In the paper

“Another meta-analysis reported the prevalence of ADHD among adolescents in juvenile detention to be just over 17%, both for males (24 studies, over 24,000 individuals) and females (13 studies, over 3,900 individuals), which is much higher than the prevalence in the population”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites Beaudry et al., 2020

In the paper

“Even while receiving medication, these children were more than three times as likely as typically developing peers to have low educational achievement, more than twice as likely to drop out of school before age 16, more than eight times as likely to have a record of special educational needs, 50% more likely to get injured, 40% more likely to be unemployed.”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Fleming et al., 2017 source

In the paper

“ADHD is a disorder associated with serious distress and/or impairments in living. Although, as documented below, many severe adverse outcomes have been associated with ADHD, the typical patient does not experience all, or even most, of these problems. Many patients live enjoyable and productive lives, especially if they receive treatment.”

In the paper

“Methylphenidate or atomoxetine treatment did not increase the risk of suicide attempts or repeated suicide attempts. Long-term methylphenidate treatment was associated with a lower risk for repeated suicide attempts among men”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites Huang et al., 2018

In the paper

“But people with ADHD had twice the rate of suicide, twice the rate of death by homicide, and a 30% greater rate of death from unintentional injury”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites Chen et al., 2019c

In the paper

“A study of over 53,000 U.S. children from the National Survey of Children’s Health found that those with ADHD were 2.4 times as likely to engage in bullying”

• Also stated in: § Emotional and Social Impairment · plain

  “A more recent study of some 64,000 children using the same database confirmed this finding, reporting that those with ADHD were 2.8 times more likely to engage in bullying”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Montes and Halterman, 2007 source
• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Benedict et al., 2015 source

In the paper

“A Danish study of almost two million people found ADHD is associated with a small risk for premature death, mostly due to accidents. When ADHD was accompanied by other psychiatric and substance use disorder, the chances of premature death increased”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites Dalsgaard et al., 2015b

In the paper

“A meta-analysis of seven studies with over 5,000 youths and their parents reported large impairments in the quality of life of youths with ADHD relative to typically developing peers, regardless of whether evaluated by the youths themselves or by their parents. Physical functioning was only moderately impaired, but emotional functioning and social functioning was strongly impaired. School”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Lee et al., 2016 source

In the paper

“A study of the Danish population using nationwide registers found that, compared with other youth, those diagnosed with ADHD were more than twice as likely to be convicted of criminal offenses and were three times as likely to be incarcerated. After adjusting for other risk factors, those with ADHD were 60% more likely to have been convicted of a crime, and 70% more likely to have been incarcer”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Mohr-Jensen et al., 2019 source

In the paper

“A systematic review of 19 U.S. studies of hundreds of thousands of people found that ADHD was associated with overall national annual costs from $143 to $266 billion, mostly associated with adults ($105 to $194 billion). Costs borne by family members of people with ADHD ranged from $33 - $43 billion”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Doshi et al., 2012 source

In the paper

“A systematic review of seven European studies of hundreds of thousands of participants estimated total ADHD-related costs in the Netherlands as €9,860 to €14,483 per patient per year, with annual national costs more than €1 billion”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites Le et al., 2014

In the paper

“Males with ADHD had a 38% lower risk of crashes in months when receiving ADHD medication compared with months when not receiving medication, and females a 42% lower risk in months when receiving ADHD medication. About a fifth of crashes would have been avoided if they had been on medication throughout the period of the study”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Chang et al., 2017 source

In the paper

“Those who never had ADHD had average annual healthcare costs of €304. Those in remission had double the cost, and those with persistent ADHD over triple the cost”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Du Rietz et al., 2020 source

In the paper

“A meta-analysis found that methylphenidate (13 studies, over 2,200 adults) and lisdexamfetamine (five studies, over 2,300 adults) led to small-to-moderate reductions in symptoms of emotional dysregulation; for atomoxetine (three studies, 237 adults) the reductions were small”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Lenzi et al., 2018 source

In the paper

“Another meta-analysis, covering six RCTs with 253 participants, reported that methylphenidate strongly reduced adult ADHD symptoms, with higher doses resulting in greater improvement”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Faraone et al., 2004 source

In the paper

“A study with over 7,000 workers in ten nations found that those with ADHD had an average of 22 annual days of lost role performance compared with those without ADHD”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites de Graaf et al., 2008 source

In the paper

“Using Danish registers, a nationwide population study of over 675,000 youths between the ages of 7 and 18 found that youths with ADHD were 3.7 times as likely to be reported as victims of sexual crimes than normally developing controls. After adjusting for covariates, such as parental violence, parental inpatient mental illness, parental suicidal behavior or alcohol abuse, parental long-term un”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites Christoffersen, 2020

In the paper

“A meta-analysis of nine studies with over 1,300 participants found stimulants to be highly effective in reducing aggression, oppositional behavior, and conduct problems in youth with ADHD (with and without oppositional defiant disorder) and conduct disorder, as measured by teachers, and moderately effective as measured by parents”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Pringsheim et al., 2015 source

In the paper

“Relative to controls, and summing net direct health costs and net losses from lower income and employment, the yearly average cost per individual with ADHD came to just over €16,000. Including additional social transfers, the total rose to just over €23,000.”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Jennum et al., 2020 source

In the paper

“Using the National Health Insurance Service claims data for the population aged 19 years or younger in South Korea (69,353 diagnosed with ADHD), the total annual economic burden due to ADHD was estimated to be $47.55 million”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Hong et al., 2020 source

In the paper

“Short-term use of ADHD medications was associated with a 30% reduction in sexually transmitted infections, and long-term use with a 40% reduction, though these reductions were only among males”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites Chen et al., 2018a

In the paper

“A Danish cohort study of over 700,000 people, including 4,557 with ADHD, found that among teenagers with ADHD, stimulant treatment was associated with a decrease in rates of injuries (30% for ten-year olds and 40% for twelve-year olds)”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites Dalsgaard et al., 2015a

In the paper

“After adjusting for relevant variables, it found a 60% lower risk of suicide in those using methylphenidate for 3 months to half a year, and a 70% reduction among those using methylphenidate for more than half a year”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites Liang et al., 2018b

In the paper

“A meta-analysis of 19 parallel group trials with over 1,600 participants, found methylphenidate produced moderate to large improvements in teacher-rated ADHD symptoms, teacher-rated behavior and parent-rated quality of life. There was no evidence of serious adverse events, and just a slightly elevated risk of non-serious side effects”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Storebø et al., 2015 source

In the paper

“Using Swedish national registers, a study of over 17,000 people with ADHD found that medication for ADHD was associated with a greater than 50% reduction in the risk of serious transport accidents among males but not females. Over 40% of crashes by male patients would have been avoided if they had been receiving treatment during the entire period”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites Chang et al., 2014b

In the paper

“A network meta-analysis found stimulants to be highly effective in reducing the symptoms of ADHD. Compared with placebo, as rated by clinicians, amphetamines were associated with large improvements in all age groups (youths 6 studies with 2179 participants, adults 5 studies with 1521 participants), methylphenidate with large improvements in youths (9 studies, 2677 participants) and moderate ones”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites Cortese et al., 2018a

In the paper

“A review of the costs of child, youth and adult ADHD in Australia estimated the total annual costs to be over $20 billion Australian dollars, or $25,000 per person with ADHD.”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites Australian ADHD Professionals Association, 2019

In the paper

“Children treated with stimulants may show delays in expected height gains averaging two centimeters over one or two years. These sometimes attenuate over time and often reverse when treatment is stopped (Faraone et al., 2008).”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Faraone et al., 2008 source

In the paper

“The two subtypes of ADHD exhibited very similar associations. Both had significant associations with unhealthy diets.”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites Li et al., 2020

In the paper

“There are multiple genetic and environmental risk factors that accumulate in various combinations to cause ADHD.”

In the paper

“Both were more likely to be eating foods high in added sugar and neglecting fruits and vegetables while eating more meat and fats.”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites Li et al., 2020

In the paper

“ADHD is a chronic disorder in which developmentally inappropriate symptoms of inattention and/or hyperactivity/impulsivity lead to impairments in many aspects of living.”

In the paper

“For hyperactivity/impulsivity symptoms, the association with unhealthy eating habits was weaker, and the association with consumption of foods high in added sugar became statistically insignificant (Li et al., 2020).”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites Li et al., 2020

In the paper

“Non-medication treatments are available but, compared with medications, are less effective for reducing inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity.”

In the paper

“A meta-analysis of ten studies (300 children) found exercise was associated with a moderate reduction in ADHD symptoms, but had no significant effect after adjusting for publication bias (Vysniauske et al., 2020).”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Vysniauske et al., 2020 source

In the paper

“After adjusting for degree of relatedness of twins (whether monozygotic or dizygotic) and controlling for the other ADHD subtype, the associations remained statistically significant for inattention, but diminished to negligible levels or became statistically nonsignificant for hyperactivity/impulsivity.”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites Li et al., 2020

In the paper

“These risk factors lead to subtle changes in multiple brain networks and in the cognitive, motivational, and emotional processes they control.”

In the paper

“Several medications are safe and effective for treating ADHD and for preventing many adverse outcomes.”

In the paper

“Many decades of research have led to a method of diagnosing ADHD that is highly valid as a predictor of treatment response, family history of ADHD, many clinical features, measures of brain structure and function, and adverse outcomes.”

In the paper

“The disorder, which starts in childhood or early adolescence and is more common in boys than girls, affects 5.9% of youth and 2.8% of adults worldwide.”

In the paper

“People diagnosed with ADHD have an elevated risk for school failure, antisocial behavior, other psychiatric problems, somatic disorders, drug and alcohol abuse, accidental injuries, and premature death, including attempted and completed suicide.”

In the paper

“Despite these and other gaps in our knowledge about ADHD, nearly two and a half centuries after the first textbook description of an ADHD-like syndrome, the statements about ADHD which we have curated, make us confident that the contemporary diagnosis of the disorder is a valid and useful category that can be used around the world to improve the lives of the many people who suffer from the”