Executive function and PTSD: disengaging from trauma.

“other real-life horrorsdat some point in their lives (Kessler et al., 1995).”

“Classical measures of flexibility and switching include the Trail-Making Test (TMT, Partington and Leiter, 1949; Reynolds, 2002; Delis, et al 2001; Reitan, 1958), involving connection of " dots " while switching between letter and number (i.e., 1-A- 2-B-3-C), and verbal fluency switching (as in the ), while others hav…”

“Persistent use of avoidance strategies keeps individuals from situations in which they could potentially learn to inhibit re-experiencing and hyperarousal symptomsdthus helping maintain the disorder (Foa and Kozak, 1986).”

“Many decision making tasks (e.g., Iowa Gambling Task) have been proposed to involve not only rational input regarding the objective value of choices, but also an " emotional " or " somatic " input directing an individual towards one choice over another (Bechara et al., 2000, 2003).”

“, 2007) and meta-analyses (Etkin and Wager, 2007) and suggest hyperactivation within limbic regions (particularly amygdala and insula) and hypoactivation of prefrontal regions, including anterior cingulate (ACC; including both rostral and dorsal) and ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vMPFC).”

“…1996 ), which involves timed verbalization regarding the ink color of emotional and neutral words (Mathews and MacLeod, 1985), and dot-probe tasks (MacLeod et al., 1986), in which targets are displayed in locations closer to previously-presented trauma-relevant, generally negative, or neutral…”

“…been associated with attentional biases towards threat and negative emotional stimuli, as exhibited by performance on the modified Stroop (Williams et al., 1996 ), which involves timed verbalization regarding the ink color of emotional and neutral words (Mathews and MacLeod, 1985), and…”

“Attention and working memory are often measured using digit span, one-trial word recall (e.g., CVLT Trial 1), and spatial span (e.g., Crosi blocks) (Milner, 1971) tasks.”

“(Rangel et al., 2008; Hare et al., 2010; Kim and Lee, 2010)dregions which have exhibited dysfunction in PTSD.”

“These results have been discussed in recent reviews (Shin and Liberzon 2010; Liberzon and Sripada, 2008; Francati et al., 2007) and meta-analyses (Etkin and Wager, 2007 ) and suggest hyperactivation within limbic regions (particularly amygdala and insula) and hypoactivation of prefrontal regions,…”

“For the purposes of this manuscript, we will focus on concepts that have been considered throughout the literature to be involved in maintaining successful " executive function " , or the control of complex goal-directed behavior (Royall et al., 2002; Alvarez and Emory, 2006; McCabe et al., 2010).”

“These studies have focused on 1) sustained attention using oddball tasks, 2) inhibitory functions using go-nogo, n-back, or continuous performance tasks, or 3) inhibitory functions during tasks involving emotional stimuli. fMRI studies with healthy adults have shown that tasks requiring sustained attention activate me…”

“…(IFC), lateral PFC (including ventrolateral [vlPFC] and dorsolateral [dlPFC]), and ventromedial or orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) (Aron et al., 2003; Garavan et al., 1999; Menon et al., 2001; Kiehl et al., 2000; Konishi et al., 1998; Liddle et al., 2001; Rubia et al., 1998; Bledowski et al., 2010).”

““train” individuals to respond faster to probes presented away from negative stimuli (MacLeod et al., 2002).”

“As documented in the literature, a high percentage of people experience symptoms of posttraumatic stress within the fewweeks following trauma (Rothbaum et al., 1992; Shalev et al., 1998).”

“…to switch between two different tasks or strategies, and 6) planning, or the ability to develop and implement strategic behaviors to obtain a future goal (Smith and Jonides 1999; McCabe et al., 2010; Carlson et al., 2005; Salthouse et al., 2003; Miyake and Shah 1999; Repovs and Baddeley, 2006).”

“, 1996), which involves timed verbalization regarding the ink color of emotional and neutral words (Mathews and MacLeod, 1985), and dot-probe tasks (MacLeod et al.”

“As documented in the literature, a high percentage of people experience symptoms of posttraumatic stress within the fewweeks following trauma (Rothbaum et al., 1992; Shalev et al., 1998).”

“…to switch between two different tasks or strategies, and 6) planning, or the ability to develop and implement strategic behaviors to obtain a future goal (Smith and Jonides 1999; McCabe et al., 2010; Carlson et al., 2005; Salthouse et al., 2003; Miyake and Shah 1999; Repovs and Baddeley, 2006).”

“…to switch between two different tasks or strategies, and 6) planning, or the ability to develop and implement strategic behaviors to obtain a future goal (Smith and Jonides 1999; McCabe et al., 2010; Carlson et al., 2005; Salthouse et al., 2003; Miyake and Shah 1999; Repovs and Baddeley, 2006).”

“…(IFC), lateral PFC (including ventrolateral [vlPFC] and dorsolateral [dlPFC]), and ventromedial or orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) (Aron et al., 2003; Garavan et al., 1999; Menon et al., 2001; Kiehl et al., 2000; Konishi et al., 1998; Liddle et al., 2001; Rubia et al., 1998; Bledowski et al., 2010).”

“…are thought to be primarily involved in inhibition of responses to emotional stimuli, while more dorsal regions are thought to be involved in the inhibition of neutral information (Whalen et al., 1998; Bush et al., 1998; Mohanty et al., 2007; Yamasaki et al., 2002; Fichtenholtz et al., 2004).”

“Given that between 20 and 50% of patients do not respond to current, first-line treatments for PTSD (Cukor et al., 2010; Schottenbauer et al., 2008), it is imperative that we direct our attentional resources towards the development and examination of such novel treatment strategies.”

“Similarly, PTSD has been associated with reduced medial PFC and rostral ACC activation during the emotional Stroop (Bremner, 2001; Shin et al., 2001).”

“These results have been discussed in recent reviews (Shin and Liberzon 2010; Liberzon and Sripada, 2008; Francati et al., 2007) and meta-analyses (Etkin and Wager, 2007 ) and suggest hyperactivation within limbic regions (particularly amygdala and insula) and hypoactivation of prefrontal regions,…”

“…focus on executive and attentional functions is because recent research indicates that attentional modification programs may be beneficial in the treatment of anxiety disorders (Amir et al., 2009a; Li et al., 2008; Schmidt et al., 2009; Amir et al., 2009b; Najmi and Amir, 2010; Amir et al., 2008).”

“…focus on executive and attentional functions is because recent research indicates that attentional modification programs may be beneficial in the treatment of anxiety disorders (Amir et al., 2009a; Li et al., 2008; Schmidt et al., 2009; Amir et al., 2009b; Najmi and Amir, 2010; Amir et al., 2008).”

“First, there have been several recent reviews summarizing findings related to learning and memory in PTSDdboth in regards to neutral information as well as emotional information, such as with fear conditioning and extinction (Rubin et al., 2008; Johnsen and Asbjornsen, 2008; Moore, 2009).”

“As discussed, decision making paradigms require not only attention and working memory, but also the integration of outcome valuations, and the inhibition of automatic responses (Hare et al., 2010; Kim and Lee, 2010).”

“…with healthy adults have shown that tasks requiring sustained attention activate medial PFC and ACC as well as parietal cortex (Kirino et al., 2000; Yamasaki et al., 2002; Fichtenholtz et al., 2004; Morey et al., 2008; Bledowski et al., 2010; Clark et al., 2000; McCarthy et al., 1997; Menon et…”

“(Vermetten et al., 2003) reported significant improvement on verbal memory after paroxetine treatment, but this study did not include a control group for comparison.”

“…cortex (Kirino et al., 2000; Yamasaki et al., 2002; Fichtenholtz et al., 2004; Morey et al., 2008; Bledowski et al., 2010; Clark et al., 2000; McCarthy et al., 1997; Menon et al., 1997; Yoshiura et al., 1999 ), while those involving inhibitory functions activate areas of the inferior frontal…”

“Lower IQ (often measured via military aptitude test performance) and educational achievement pre-trauma has been reported to relate to PTSD symptoms post-trauma (Gale et al., 2008; Macklin et al., 1998; Green et al., 1990; Pitman et al., 1991; Thompson and Gottesman, 2008; Vasterling et al., 2002).”

“Lower IQ (often measured via military aptitude test performance) and educational achievement pre-trauma has been reported to relate to PTSD symptoms post-trauma (Gale et al., 2008; Macklin et al., 1998; Green et al., 1990; Pitman et al., 1991; Thompson and Gottesman, 2008; Vasterling et al., 2002).”

“…targets are displayed in locations closer to previously-presented trauma-relevant, generally negative, or neutral stimuli (Dalgleish et al., 2003; Foa et al., 1991; McNally et al., 1990; Chemtob et al., 1999; Mueller-Pfeiffer et al., 2010; Kimble et al., 2010); except see (Bremner et al., 2004;…”

“…victims without PTSD and non-trauma controls (Samuelson et al., 2006; Brandes et al., 2002; Gilbertson et al., 2001; Vasterling et al., 1998, 2002; Marmar et al., 2006; Lagarde et al., 2010; Gilbertson et al., 2001; Jenkins et al., 2000), and these deficits have been reported to correlate with…”

“Although PTSD does not have a substantial effect on general cognition, neuropsychological research provides evidence for subtle deficits concerning inhibition of automatic responses and the regulation of attentiondin both emotional and non-emotional contexts (Falconer et al., 2008; Pineles et al., 2007, 2009; McNally…”

“recognize the significant influence comorbid conditions can have on neurocognitive function and refer to recent articles focusing on this important and complex issue (Stein and McAllister, 2009; Samuelson et al., 2006).”

“…(IFC), lateral PFC (including ventrolateral [vlPFC] and dorsolateral [dlPFC]), and ventromedial or orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) (Aron et al., 2003; Garavan et al., 1999; Menon et al., 2001; Kiehl et al., 2000; Konishi et al., 1998; Liddle et al., 2001; Rubia et al., 1998; Bledowski et al., 2010).”

“…al., 2000; Yamasaki et al., 2002; Fichtenholtz et al., 2004; Morey et al., 2008; Bledowski et al., 2010; Clark et al., 2000; McCarthy et al., 1997; Menon et al., 1997; Yoshiura et al., 1999 ), while those involving inhibitory functions activate areas of the inferior frontal cortex (IFC), lateral…”

“, “top-down” regulation of attention)(Bishop, 2008).”

“…focus on executive and attentional functions is because recent research indicates that attentional modification programs may be beneficial in the treatment of anxiety disorders (Amir et al., 2009a; Li et al., 2008; Schmidt et al., 2009; Amir et al., 2009b; Najmi and Amir, 2010; Amir et al., 2008).”

“Parslow and Jorm (Parslow and Jorm, 2007) reported that pre-trauma performances on immediate and delayed verbal recall (California Verbal Learning Test [CVLT]) (Delis et al., 1988), working memory (digit span backward), visuomotor speed (Symbol Digit Modalities Test [SDMT]) (Smith, 1982), and verbal intelligence (Nati…”

“The lateral PFC specifically has been implicated in response inhibitiondwhether it be emotional or nonemotional contexts (Compton et al., 2003; Bledowski et al., 2010).”

“, 1986), in which targets are displayed in locations closer to previously-presented trauma-relevant, generally negative, or neutral stimuli (Dalgleish et al., 2003; Foa et al., 1991; McNally et al., 1990; Chemtob et al., 1999; Mueller-Pfeiffer et al., 2010; Kimble et al., 2010); except see (Bremner et al.”

“…are thought to be primarily involved in inhibition of responses to emotional stimuli, while more dorsal regions are thought to be involved in the inhibition of neutral information (Whalen et al., 1998; Bush et al., 1998; Mohanty et al., 2007; Yamasaki et al., 2002; Fichtenholtz et al., 2004).”

“As discussed, decision making paradigms require not only attention and working memory, but also the integration of outcome valuations, and the inhibition of automatic responses (Hare et al., 2010; Kim and Lee, 2010).”

“time onTMT; decreased total words on fluency) on such tasks (Stein et al., 2002; Beckham et al., 1998; Jenkins et al., 2000), while others”

“These results have been discussed in recent reviews (Shin and Liberzon 2010; Liberzon and Sripada, 2008; Francati et al., 2007) and meta-analyses (Etkin and Wager, 2007 ) and suggest hyperactivation within limbic regions (particularly amygdala and insula) and hypoactivation of prefrontal regions,…”

“…ACC as well as parietal cortex (Kirino et al., 2000; Yamasaki et al., 2002; Fichtenholtz et al., 2004; Morey et al., 2008; Bledowski et al., 2010; Clark et al., 2000; McCarthy et al., 1997; Menon et al., 1997; Yoshiura et al., 1999 ), while those involving inhibitory functions activate areas of…”

“…in locations closer to previously-presented trauma-relevant, generally negative, or neutral stimuli (Dalgleish et al., 2003; Foa et al., 1991; McNally et al., 1990; Chemtob et al., 1999; Mueller-Pfeiffer et al., 2010; Kimble et al., 2010); except see (Bremner et al., 2004; Kimble et al., 2009).”

“Lower IQ (often measured via military aptitude test performance) and educational achievement pre-trauma has been reported to relate to PTSD symptoms post-trauma (Gale et al., 2008; Macklin et al., 1998; Green et al., 1990; Pitman et al., 1991; Thompson and Gottesman, 2008; Vasterling et al., 2002).”

“lateral PFC, as well the medial OFC (Falconer et al., 2008).”

“Lower IQ (often measured via military aptitude test performance) and educational achievement pre-trauma has been reported to relate to PTSD symptoms post-trauma (Gale et al., 2008; Macklin et al., 1998; Green et al., 1990; Pitman et al., 1991; Thompson and Gottesman, 2008; Vasterling et al., 2002).”

“First, there have been several recent reviews summarizing findings related to learning and memory in PTSDdboth in regards to neutral information as well as emotional information, such as with fear conditioning and extinction (Rubin et al., 2008; Johnsen and Asbjornsen, 2008; Moore, 2009).”

“non-trauma controls (Samuelson et al., 2006; Brandes et al., 2002; Gilbertson et al., 2001; Vasterling et al., 1998, 2002; Marmar et al., 2006; Lagarde et al., 2010; Gilbertson et al., 2001; Jenkins et al., 2000), and these deficits have been reported to correlate with PTSD symptom severity (Burriss et al.”

“digms therefore offer a useful framework for teasing apart PFC dysfunction in PTSD and other anxiety disorders (Aupperle and Paulus, 2010).”

“…fMRI studies with healthy adults have shown that tasks requiring sustained attention activate medial PFC and ACC as well as parietal cortex (Kirino et al., 2000; Yamasaki et al., 2002; Fichtenholtz et al., 2004; Morey et al., 2008; Bledowski et al., 2010; Clark et al., 2000; McCarthy et…”

“and decreased P2 amplitudes, thought to be associated with emotional processing (Eldar and Bar-Haim, 2010).”

“PTSD has been associatedwith increased activation in dorsal ACC and other PFC regions during an auditory oddball task (Bryant et al., 2005).”

“Although PTSD does not have a substantial effect on general cognition, neuropsychological research provides evidence for subtle deficits concerning inhibition of automatic responses and the regulation of attentiondin both emotional and non-emotional contexts (Falconer et al., 2008; Pineles et al., 2007, 2009; McNally…”

“(Vasterling et al., 1998; McFarlane et al., 1993; Wu et al., 2010; Shucard et al., 2008; Jenkins et al., 2000; Vasterling et al., 2002);”

“…have been found in combat-and sexual assault-related PTSD when compared to victims without PTSD and non-trauma controls (Samuelson et al., 2006; Brandes et al., 2002; Gilbertson et al., 2001; Vasterling et al., 1998, 2002; Marmar et al., 2006; Lagarde et al., 2010; Gilbertson et al., 2001;…”

“related) (Morey et al., 2009), while another study reported PTSD patients to exhibit greater response latency for number Stroop after”

“(Sailer et al., 2008) reported that PTSD patients were slower to learn an optimal response pattern during decision”

“Interestingly, several studies have also reported PTSD to be associated with increased intrusions during memory recall (Vasterling et al., 1998; Lindauer et al., 2006), which may reflect difficulty inhibiting related, but non-relevant internally-generated stimuli.”

“Twin studies also have the ability to highlight potential pretrauma risk and resilience factors in PTSD (Kremen et al., 2007; Gilbertson et al., 2006).”

“Recent studies suggest the bias may be most associated with attentional interference, indicating potential underlying dysfunction in disengagement and inhibition (Pineles et al., 2007, 2009).”

“Decreased inhibitory function has rather consistently been reported for PTSD (Falconer et al., 2008; Wu et al., 2010; Koso and Hansen 2006; Casada and Roache 2005; Shucard et al., 2008; Bressan et al., 2009; Jenkins et al., 2000; Leskin and White, 2007), and performance has been reported to relate…”

“…connection of " dots " while switching between letter and number (i.e., 1-A- 2-B-3-C), and verbal fluency switching (as in the ), while others have not (Zalewski et al., 1994; Twamley et al., 2004, 2009; Lagarde et al., 2010; Barrett et al., 1996; Crowell et al., 2002; Gurvits et al., 1993 ).”

“…shown that tasks requiring sustained attention activate medial PFC and ACC as well as parietal cortex (Kirino et al., 2000; Yamasaki et al., 2002; Fichtenholtz et al., 2004; Morey et al., 2008; Bledowski et al., 2010; Clark et al., 2000; McCarthy et al., 1997; Menon et al., 1997; Yoshiura et…”

“non-trauma controls (Samuelson et al., 2006; Brandes et al., 2002; Gilbertson et al., 2001; Vasterling et al., 1998, 2002; Marmar et al., 2006; Lagarde et al., 2010; Gilbertson et al., 2001; Jenkins et al., 2000), and these deficits have been reported to correlate with PTSD symptom severity (Burriss et al.”

“those with PTSD, symptoms remain and may even worsen with time (Orcutt et al., 2004).”

“Although PTSD does not have a substantial effect on general cognition, neuropsychological research provides evidence for subtle deficits concerning inhibition of automatic responses and the regulation of attentiondin both emotional and non-emotional contexts (Falconer et al., 2008; Pineles et al., 2007, 2009; McNally…”

“…connection of " dots " while switching between letter and number (i.e., 1-A- 2-B-3-C), and verbal fluency switching (as in the ), while others have not (Zalewski et al., 1994; Twamley et al., 2004, 2009; Lagarde et al., 2010; Barrett et al., 1996; Crowell et al., 2002; Gurvits et al., 1993 ).”

“non-trauma controls (Samuelson et al., 2006; Brandes et al., 2002; Gilbertson et al., 2001; Vasterling et al., 1998, 2002; Marmar et al., 2006; Lagarde et al., 2010; Gilbertson et al., 2001; Jenkins et al., 2000), and these deficits have been reported to correlate with PTSD symptom severity (Burriss et al.”

“…connection of " dots " while switching between letter and number (i.e., 1-A- 2-B-3-C), and verbal fluency switching (as in the ), while others have not (Zalewski et al., 1994; Twamley et al., 2004, 2009; Lagarde et al., 2010; Barrett et al., 1996; Crowell et al., 2002; Gurvits et al., 1993 ).”

“Impaired performance on the color-word Stroop has been reported for various PTSD populations, though it is unclear whether such a deficit is specific to PTSD or a more general impairment across psychiatric disorders (Lagarde et al., 2010; Litz et al., 1996).”

“…(IFC), lateral PFC (including ventrolateral [vlPFC] and dorsolateral [dlPFC]), and ventromedial or orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) (Aron et al., 2003; Garavan et al., 1999; Menon et al., 2001; Kiehl et al., 2000; Konishi et al., 1998; Liddle et al., 2001; Rubia et al., 1998; Bledowski et al., 2010).”

“Lower IQ (often measured via military aptitude test performance) and educational achievement pre-trauma has been reported to relate to PTSD symptoms post-trauma (Gale et al., 2008; Macklin et al., 1998; Green et al., 1990; Pitman et al., 1991; Thompson and Gottesman, 2008; Vasterling et al., 2002).”

“examine decision making in PTSD patients, both of which found PTSD to be associated with an increase in the number of trials needed to learn optimal patterns of responding (Sailer et al., 2008; Koenen et al., 2001).”

“non-trauma controls (Samuelson et al., 2006; Brandes et al., 2002; Gilbertson et al., 2001; Vasterling et al., 1998, 2002; Marmar et al., 2006; Lagarde et al., 2010; Gilbertson et al., 2001; Jenkins et al., 2000), and these deficits have been reported to correlate with PTSD symptom severity (Burriss et al.”

“…focus on executive and attentional functions is because recent research indicates that attentional modification programs may be beneficial in the treatment of anxiety disorders (Amir et al., 2009a; Li et al., 2008; Schmidt et al., 2009; Amir et al., 2009b; Najmi and Amir, 2010; Amir et al., 2008).”

“…sustained attention activate medial PFC and ACC as well as parietal cortex (Kirino et al., 2000; Yamasaki et al., 2002; Fichtenholtz et al., 2004; Morey et al., 2008; Bledowski et al., 2010; Clark et al., 2000; McCarthy et al., 1997; Menon et al., 1997; Yoshiura et al., 1999 ), while those…”

“…(IFC), lateral PFC (including ventrolateral [vlPFC] and dorsolateral [dlPFC]), and ventromedial or orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) (Aron et al., 2003; Garavan et al., 1999; Menon et al., 2001; Kiehl et al., 2000; Konishi et al., 1998; Liddle et al., 2001; Rubia et al., 1998; Bledowski et al., 2010).”

“…focus on executive and attentional functions is because recent research indicates that attentional modification programs may be beneficial in the treatment of anxiety disorders (Amir et al., 2009a; Li et al., 2008; Schmidt et al., 2009; Amir et al., 2009b; Najmi and Amir, 2010; Amir et al., 2008).”

“Studies involving the presentation of emotional " distracters " during working memory tasks have reported PTSD to be associated with increased activation in ventral PFC regions (e.g., ventromedial PFC) during processing of emotional distracters, but decreased activation in dorsal PFC regions (e.g., dorsal ACC, dlPFC)…”

“(Wild and Gur, 2008) reported that performance on immediate recall for stories, above and beyond initial treatment severity and even attentional”

“Twin studies also have the ability to highlight potential pretrauma risk and resilience factors in PTSD (Kremen et al., 2007; Gilbertson et al., 2006).”

“(Moores et al., 2008) used a task with conditions of working memory “maintenance” requiring subjects to maintain attention and respond to pre-specified target stimuli (“fixed target”) and “updating” requiring subjects to respond to stimuli that matched that presented directly before it (i.”

“Recent studies suggest the bias may be most associated with attentional interference, indicating potential underlying dysfunction in disengagement and inhibition (Pineles et al., 2007, 2009).”

“However, it should be noted that several studies have failed to identify auditory attention deficits in PTSD (Vasterling et al., 1998; Neylan et al., 2004; Samuelson et al., 2006; Leskin and White, 2007).”

“…connection of " dots " while switching between letter and number (i.e., 1-A- 2-B-3-C), and verbal fluency switching (as in the ), while others have not (Zalewski et al., 1994; Twamley et al., 2004, 2009; Lagarde et al., 2010; Barrett et al., 1996; Crowell et al., 2002; Gurvits et al., 1993 ).”

“…connection of " dots " while switching between letter and number (i.e., 1-A- 2-B-3-C), and verbal fluency switching (as in the ), while others have not (Zalewski et al., 1994; Twamley et al., 2004, 2009; Lagarde et al., 2010; Barrett et al., 1996; Crowell et al., 2002; Gurvits et al., 1993 ).”

“time onTMT; decreased total words on fluency) on such tasks (Stein et al., 2002; Beckham et al., 1998; Jenkins et al., 2000), while others”

“Given that between 20 and 50% of patients do not respond to current, first-line treatments for PTSD (Cukor et al., 2010; Schottenbauer et al., 2008), it is imperative that we direct our attentional resources towards the development and examination of such novel treatment strategies.”

“Impaired performance on the color-word Stroop has been reported for various PTSD populations, though it is unclear whether such a deficit is specific to PTSD or a more general impairment across psychiatric disorders (Lagarde et al., 2010; Litz et al., 1996).”

“(Marx et al., 2009) conducted a similar study with veterans, and reported that pre-deployment visual immediate recall performance (Wechsler Memory Scale) (Wechsler, 1997b) was negatively related to PTSD symptoms post-deployment.”

“…connection of " dots " while switching between letter and number (i.e., 1-A- 2-B-3-C), and verbal fluency switching (as in the ), while others have not (Zalewski et al., 1994; Twamley et al., 2004, 2009; Lagarde et al., 2010; Barrett et al., 1996; Crowell et al., 2002; Gurvits et al., 1993 ).”

“First, there have been several recent reviews summarizing findings related to learning and memory in PTSDdboth in regards to neutral information as well as emotional information, such as with fear conditioning and extinction (Rubin et al., 2008; Johnsen and Asbjornsen, 2008; Moore, 2009).”

“It should be noted that many studies using CPT tasks to assess performance in PTSD have reported increased errors of commission to distracter stimuli (Wu et al., 2010; Vasterling et al., 1998), suggesting difficulty with inhibition of automatic responses.”

“…connection of " dots " while switching between letter and number (i.e., 1-A- 2-B-3-C), and verbal fluency switching (as in the ), while others have not (Zalewski et al., 1994; Twamley et al., 2004, 2009; Lagarde et al., 2010; Barrett et al., 1996; Crowell et al., 2002; Gurvits et al., 1993 ).”

“Although Kanagaratnam and Asbjornsen (Kanagaratnam and Asbjornsen, 2007) reported PTSD to be associated with increased”

“(Walter et al., 2010) reported that trauma-focused therapy (e.”

“, 2000), and these deficits have been reported to correlate with PTSD symptom severity (Burriss et al., 2008).”

“Studies on PTSD have also examined the effects of symptom provocation prior to completion of a cognitive task (Jelinek et al., 2006, 2008).”

“Decreased inhibitory function has rather consistently been reported for PTSD (Falconer et al., 2008; Wu et al., 2010; Koso and Hansen 2006; Casada and Roache 2005; Shucard et al., 2008; Bressan et al., 2009; Jenkins et al., 2000; Leskin and White, 2007), and performance has been reported to relate…”

“…in locations closer to previously-presented trauma-relevant, generally negative, or neutral stimuli (Dalgleish et al., 2003; Foa et al., 1991; McNally et al., 1990; Chemtob et al., 1999; Mueller-Pfeiffer et al., 2010; Kimble et al., 2010); except see (Bremner et al., 2004; Kimble et al., 2009).”

“errors of commission to distracter stimuli (Wu et al., 2010; Vasterling et al., 1998), suggesting difficulty with inhibition of”

“Lower IQ (often measured via military aptitude test performance) and educational achievement pre-trauma has been reported to relate to PTSD symptoms post-trauma (Gale et al., 2008; Macklin et al., 1998; Green et al., 1990; Pitman et al., 1991; Thompson and Gottesman, 2008; Vasterling et al., 2002).”

“Another study investigated the effects of psychotherapeutic treatment on emotional Stroop performance in PTSD and found no significant effects (Devineni et al., 2004).”

“…(Vasterling et al., 1998; McFarlane et al., 1993; Wu et al., 2010; Shucard et al., 2008; Jenkins et al., 2000; Vasterling et al., 2002); except see (Golier et al., 1997), and the number of correct hits has been reported to negatively correlate with PTSD symptom severity (Vasterling et al., 2002).”

“, 1986), in which targets are displayed in locations closer to previously-presented trauma-relevant, generally negative, or neutral stimuli (Dalgleish et al., 2003; Foa et al., 1991; McNally et al., 1990; Chemtob et al., 1999; Mueller-Pfeiffer et al., 2010; Kimble et al., 2010); except see (Bremner et al.”

“, 1986), in which targets are displayed in locations closer to previously-presented trauma-relevant, generally negative, or neutral stimuli (Dalgleish et al., 2003; Foa et al., 1991; McNally et al., 1990; Chemtob et al., 1999; Mueller-Pfeiffer et al., 2010; Kimble et al., 2010); except see (Bremner et al.”

“…consistently been reported for PTSD (Falconer et al., 2008; Wu et al., 2010; Koso and Hansen 2006; Casada and Roache 2005; Shucard et al., 2008; Bressan et al., 2009; Jenkins et al., 2000; Leskin and White, 2007), and performance has been reported to relate to PTSD symptom severity (Falconer…”

“…focus on executive and attentional functions is because recent research indicates that attentional modification programs may be beneficial in the treatment of anxiety disorders (Amir et al., 2009a; Li et al., 2008; Schmidt et al., 2009; Amir et al., 2009b; Najmi and Amir, 2010; Amir et al., 2008).”

“Parslow and Jorm (Parslow and Jorm, 2007) reported that pre-trauma performances on immediate and delayed verbal recall (California Verbal Learning Test [CVLT]) (Delis et al., 1988), working memory (digit span backward), visuomotor speed (Symbol Digit Modalities Test [SDMT]) (Smith, 1982), and verbal intelligence (Nati…”

“(Fani et al., 2009) used a double-blind, placebo-controlled design and reported paroxetine treatment to be associated with a non-significant trend toward improved verbal declarative memory.”

“Studies on PTSD have also examined the effects of symptom provocation prior to completion of a cognitive task (Jelinek et al., 2006, 2008).”

“Lower IQ (often measured via military aptitude test performance) and educational achievement pre-trauma has been reported to relate to PTSD symptoms post-trauma (Gale et al., 2008; Macklin et al., 1998; Green et al., 1990; Pitman et al., 1991; Thompson and Gottesman, 2008; Vasterling et al., 2002).”