Source Attribution of Poly- and Perfluoroalkyl Substances (PFASs) in Surface Waters from Rhode Island and the New York Metropolitan Area
Open accessAbstract
Exposure to poly- and perfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) has been associated with adverse health effects in humans and wildlife. Understanding pollution sources is essential for environmental regulation, but source attribution for PFASs has been confounded by limited information about industrial releases and rapid changes in chemical production. Here we use principal component analysis (PCA), hierarchical clustering, and geospatial analysis to understand source contributions to 14 PFASs measured across 37 sites in the northeastern United States in 2014. PFASs are significantly elevated in urban areas compared to rural sites except for perfluorobutanesulfonate, N -methyl perfluorooctanesulfonamidoacetic acid, perfluoroundecanate, and perfluorododecanate. The highest PFAS concentrations across sites were those of perfluorooctanate (PFOA, 56 ng L −1 ) and perfluorohexanesulfonate (PFHxS, 43 ng L −1 ), and perfluorooctanesulfonate (PFOS) levels are lower than earlier measurements of U.S. surface waters. PCA and cluster analysis indicate three main statistical groupings of PFASs. Geospatial analysis of watersheds reveals the first component/cluster originates from a mixture of contemporary point sources such as airports and textile mills. Atmospheric sources from the waste sector are consistent with the second component, and the metal smelting industry plausibly explains the third component. We find this source-attribution technique is effective for better understanding PFAS sources in urban areas.
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Claims the paper makes
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- Findingown data
The highest PFHxS concentration measured was 43 ng/L, at Site 5 (Mill Cove, RI).
“Highest concentrations of PFHxS (43 ng L−1) and PFNA (14 ng L−1) were measured at Site 5 (Mill Cove, RI).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
The highest PFNA concentration measured was 14 ng/L, at Site 5 (Mill Cove, RI).
“Highest concentrations of PFHxS (43 ng L−1) and PFNA (14 ng L−1) were measured at Site 5 (Mill Cove, RI).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
The maximum PFOS concentration in this study is much lower than maximum levels reported in earlier studies of U.S. surface waters, which ranged from 43 to 244 ng/L.
“This is much lower than maximum levels reported in earlier studies of US surface waters that range between 43-244 ng L−1 (Table S4) and reflects the continued decline in environmental PFOS burdens in North America following elimination of production in 2002.25,26”
- Also stated in: § Abstract · plain
“PFOS levels are lower than earlier measurements of U.S. surface waters.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Also stated in: § Abstract · plain
- Findingnone given
No industrial facilities exist upstream of Sites 1 and 6.
“No industrial facilities exist upstream of Sites 1 and 6.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
Geospatial analysis of the watersheds for Sites 5, 19, 20, and 31 reveals a mixture of potential sources.
“Geospatial analysis of the watersheds for Sites 5, 19, 20 and 31 reveals a mixture of potential sources (Figure S5).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
- Findingown data
In this study, PFAS concentrations were significantly higher at urban sites than at rural sites for every measured compound except PFBS, N-MeFOSAA, PFUnDA, and PFDoDA.
“PFASs are significantly elevated in urban areas compared to rural sites except for perfluorobutane sulfonate (PFBS), N-methyl perfluorooctanesulfonamidoacetic acid (N-MeFOSAA), perfluoroundecanate (PFUnDA) and perfluorododecanate (PFDoDA).”
- Also stated in: § Concentrations and spatial patterns · plain
“Measured PFAS concentrations in urban regions were significantly higher (Wilcoxin rank sum test, p<0.017) than rural sites for all compounds except PFBS, N-MeFOSAA, PFUnDA and PFDoDA (Figure S3).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Also stated in: § Concentrations and spatial patterns · plain
- Findingown data
The first component/cluster explains 46% of PCA variability and includes PFOA, PFNA, PFBS, PFHxS, PFHxA, and PFDA.
“The first component/cluster explains 46% of variability in the PCA and includes two major end products of the fluorochemical manufacturing industry (PFOA, PFNA), and a mix of other compounds: PFBS, PFHxS, PFHxA, PFDA.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
The highest median per-capita discharges across compounds were, in decreasing order, PFOA (27), PFHxA (14), PFHpA (10), PFOS (9), PFHxS (7), and PFNA (5) μg per person per day.
“Highest median per-capita discharges (μg person−1 day−1) across compounds, in decreasing order, were for PFOA (27), PFHxA (14), PFHpA (10), PFOS (9), PFHxS (7), and PFNA (5) (Figure S4).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
For Sites 19 and 20, textile mills in the upstream watersheds have the highest impact as a function of distance.
“For Sites 19 and 20, textile mills in the upstream watersheds have the highest impact as a function of distance (Table S5).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: PFASs are used for water-resistant coating in textiles, and washing and disposal of wastewater at textile mills provides a vector for their entry to the aquatic environment.
- Findingnone given
For Site 3, the largest source impact based on distance is from a wastewater treatment plant 1 km upstream.
“For Site 3, the largest source impact based on distance is from a wastewater treatment plant 1 km upstream.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
The highest individual PFAS concentration measured was PFOA at 56 ng/L, at Site 31 on the Passaic River, NJ.
“The highest individual PFAS concentration across sites was PFOA (56 ng L−1) at Site 31 (Passaic River, NJ).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
For Site 5, the greatest source impact as a function of distance within the watershed is from T.F. Green Airport.
“For Site 5, the greatest source impact as a function of distance within the watershed is from T.F. Green Airport, the largest public airport in Rhode Island.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
PCA results suggest that Site 5 is statistically similar to the Pawcatuck River sites 19 and 20 and to Passaic River Site 31.
“PCA results suggest Site 5 is statistically similar to the Pawcatuck River, RI sampling locations (Sites 20, 19) and the Passaic River, NJ (Site 31).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
These per-capita discharges are lower than previously reported values for Europe around 2007, such as PFOA at 82 and PFOS at 57 μg per person per day.
“These are lower than previously reported in Europe ca. 2007 (e.g., PFOA: 82 μg person−1 day−1, PFOS: 57 μg person−1 day−1).28”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [28] source
Not checked in the free run.
- Findingown data
The FCA database indicates that the watershed of Site 31 contains diverse industrial sources, including metal plating, printing, a landfill, and petroleum and coal products manufacturing.
“The FCA database indicates the watershed of Site 31 (Figure S5) contains diverse industrial sources that must account for this profile including metal plating, printing, a landfill, petroleum and coal products manufacturing.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Total population in the upstream watershed was not significantly correlated with PFAS concentrations at sampling sites, with p-values from 0.12 to 0.95 across compounds.
“We did not find a statistically significant correlation between total population in each upstream watershed and PFAS concentrations measured at each sampling site (p=0.12 to 0.95 across compounds).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
For Site 31, PCA scores suggest a mix of components 1 through 3.
“For Site 31, PCA scores suggest a mix of components 1-3 (Figure 2 c, d).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
Both hierarchical clustering and PCA identified three distinct groupings of PFASs.
“Both hierarchical clustering and PCA identified three distinct groupings of PFASs (Figure 2a, b).”
- Also stated in: § Abstract · hedged
“PCA and cluster analysis indicates three main statistical groupings of PFASs.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Also stated in: § Abstract · hedged
- Findingown data
The maximum PFOS concentration measured was 27 ng/L, at Site 2 on the Woonasquatucket River, RI, within Providence.
“The maximum PFOS concentration (27 ng L−1) was measured at Site 2 (Woonasquatucket River, RI) within the City of Providence, RI.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
The third component is most pronounced at Site 2 on the Woonasquatucket River, within Providence, RI.
“This component is most pronounced at Site 2 along the Woonasquatucket River, within the City of Providence, RI.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
GIS analysis of the watershed at Site 2 reveals 14 metal coating/plating industries upstream.
“GIS analysis of the watershed at this site reveals the presence of 14 metal coating/plating industries upstream (Figure 2d, Table S5, Figure S5).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation
Prior work indicates that AFFF use at modern airports releases diverse PFASs to downstream aquatic environments, including compounds in the first PCA/cluster.
“Prior work indicates uses of AFFF in modern airports release diverse PFASs to downstream aquatic environments, including the compounds identified as part of the first PCA/cluster.4,29-31”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 4 sources checked - Interpretationreasoning
The first PCA component/cluster, comprising PFOA, PFNA, PFBS, PFHxS, PFHxA, and PFDA, represents a mixture of contemporary sources including airports and textile mills.
“Overall, we conclude that the first PCA component and cluster of PFASs (PFOA, PFNA PFBS, PFHxS, PFHxA, PFDA) represents a mixture of contemporary sources including airports and textile mills.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: PFASs are used for water-resistant coating in textiles, and washing and disposal of wastewater at textile mills provides a vector for their entry to the aquatic environment.
- Interpretationown data
The lower PFOS levels reflect a continued decline in environmental PFOS burdens in North America after production ended in 2002.
“and reflects the continued decline in environmental PFOS burdens in North America following elimination of production in 2002.25,26”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked - Premisecitation
PFUnDA and PFDoDA mainly originate from fluorotelomer alcohols or other fluorotelomer-based products.
“PFUnDA and PFDoDA mainly originate from fluorotelomer alcohols or other fluototelomer based products.32”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [32] Government of Canada. Chemical Substances:Long-Chain (C9-C20)Perfluorocarboxylic Acids (PFCAs), Their Salts, and Their Precursors(http://www.chemicalsubstanceschimiques.gc.ca/challenge-defi/summary-sommaire/pfcaps-apfcsp-eng.php) (accessed November 2015).
Not checked in the free run.
- Premisecitation
This contrasts with many other persistent organic pollutants that are primarily transported atmospherically, allowing sources within a radius around sampling sites to be linked to concentrations.
“This contrasts many other persistent organic pollutants that are primarily transported atmospherically, allowing sources within a radius surrounding the sampling sites to be linked to concentrations.39”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [39] source
Not checked in the free run.
- Interpretationown data
Background PFAS concentrations at most rural sites in this study contain a mix of diverse source signatures that are not statistically distinguishable using these methods.
“Background PFAS concentrations at most rural sites in this study contain a mix of diverse source signatures that are not statistically distinguishable using these methods.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationown data
The lack of spatial variability and slight elevation at Site 3 is consistent with an atmospheric input pathway for N-MeFOSAA, PFUnDA, and PFDoDA.
“Concentrations of N-MeFOSAA, PFUnDA and PFDoDA were not spatially variable at most sites and only slightly elevated at Site 3, consistent with an atmospheric input pathway.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationnone given
Atmospheric sources from the waste sector are consistent with the second component.
“Atmospheric sources from the waste sector are consistent with the second component”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: N-MeFOSAA and N-EtFOSAA are intermediate degradation products from FOSE, with PFOS as the final degradation product.
- Interpretationcitation
PFHxA is likely not included in the third cluster because other direct sources can contribute one order of magnitude more PFHxA than PFPeA.
“It is likely that PFHxA is not included in the cluster because other direct sources can contribute one order of magnitude more PFHxA than PFPeA.37,38”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked - Study design and conductown data
The point-source impact indicator cannot be considered a quantitative estimate of contributions to sampling locations because magnitudes of PFAS discharges are not available.
“This approach provides additional information on plausible sources that complements multivariate statistical analysis but cannot be considered a quantitative estimate of contributions to sampling locations since magnitudes of PFAS discharges are not available.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationnone given
The metal smelting industry plausibly explains the third component.
“and the metal smelting industry plausibly explains the third component.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationown data
Geospatial analysis of watersheds reveals that the first component/cluster originates from a mixture of contemporary point sources such as airports and textile mills.
“Geospatial analysis of watersheds reveals the first component/cluster originates from a mixture of contemporary point sources such as airports and textile mills.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: PFASs are used for water-resistant coating in textiles, and washing and disposal of wastewater at textile mills provides a vector for their entry to the aquatic environment.
- Interpretationreasoning
The source-attribution technique used here is effective for better understanding PFAS sources in urban areas.
“We find this source-attribution technique is effective for better understanding PFAS sources in urban areas.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationown data
Aquatic transport pathways, specifically hydrological distance and river flow directions, are critical for source identification.
“We find aquatic transport pathways (hydrological distance and river flow directions) are critical for source identification.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Study design and conductreasoning
Estuarine sampling sites were excluded from the geospatial analysis because tidal waters could dilute potential source profiles.
“Estuarine sampling sites were excluded from the geospatial analysis due to the confounding influence of tidal waters diluting potential source profiles.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
The distinct PFAS profile at Site 2 can be explained by the metal plating industry.
“We conclude that the distinct PFAS profile at Site 2 is can be explained by the metal plating industry.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
The approach demonstrated for RI and NY/NJ has potential for diagnosing PFAS source contributions in urbanized regions with elevated concentrations and lacking specific information on the magnitude of PFAS discharges from diverse industries.
“We conclude that the approach demonstrated here for RI and NY/NJ has potential for diagnosing PFAS source contributions in urbanized regions with elevated concentrations and lacking specific information on the magnitude of PFAS discharges from diverse industries.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
The second component is most likely attributable to sources from the waste sector.
“We thus infer that this component is most likely attributable to sources from the waste sector.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: N-MeFOSAA and N-EtFOSAA are intermediate degradation products from FOSE, with PFOS as the final degradation product.
- Study design and conductown data
PFASs in five field blanks prepared following the sample preparation procedure were all below the limit of detection.
“PFASs in five field blanks (HPLC grade water) prepared following the sample preparation procedure were all below the LOD.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Interpretationown data
Multivariate statistical tools such as PCA and hierarchical clustering of PFAS profiles, combined with data on hydrological proximity of potential sources, are useful for identifying sources of surface water contamination.
“Multivariate statistical tools such as PCA and hierarchical clustering of PFAS profiles combined with data on hydrological proximity of potential sources are useful for identifying sources of surface water contamination.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
- May combine two claims. 14
- Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 4
May combine two claims.
Findingown dataSite 5 (Mill Cove, RI) had the highest summed PFASs across all sites and was dominated by the first component/cluster mixture.
“Site 5 (Mill Cove, RI) contains the highest summed PFASs across all sites and is dominated by this mixture of PFASs.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataThe second component/cluster explains 19% of PFAS variability and includes PFUnDA, PFDoDA, MeFOSAA, and EtFOSAA.
“The second component/cluster explains 19% of the variability in PFASs and includes two long-chain PFASs (PFUnDA and PFDoDA) and two precursors to PFOS (MeFOSAA and EtFOSAA) (Figure 2).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataLandfill/waste management facilities are located within 2 km of Sites 1, 3, and 6 but are not hydrologically connected to the sampling locations.
“Landfill/waste management facilities are located within 2 km of all three sites but are not hydrologically connected to the sampling locations (Figure S5).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataThe second component profile is most pronounced at Site 3 on the Woonasquatucket River, RI, and is also evident at Site 1 (Slack's Tributary, RI) and Site 6 (Buckeye Brook, RI).
“This profile is most pronounced at Site 3 along the Woonasquatucket River in RI and is also evident at Site 1 (Slack’s Tributary, RI) and Site 6 (Buckeye Brook, RI).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataConcentrations of N-MeFOSAA, PFUnDA, and PFDoDA were not spatially variable at most sites and were only slightly elevated at Site 3.
“Concentrations of N-MeFOSAA, PFUnDA and PFDoDA were not spatially variable at most sites and only slightly elevated at Site 3, consistent with an atmospheric input pathway.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataPFOA and PFNA were detectable at all sites, and more than 90% of sites had detectable PFHxS, PFOS, PFDA, and 6:2 FtS.
“All sites had detectable PFOA and PFNA and over 90% contained detectable PFHxS, PFOS, PFDA, and 6:2 FtS (Table S2, S3, Figure S2).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataThe third component explains 15% of PFAS variability and includes PFPeA, PFOS, and 6:2 FTS.
“The third component explains 15% of the variability in PFASs and includes PFPeA, PFOS, and 6:2 FTS.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Interpretationown dataHierarchical clustering groups Site 5 separately from those sites, suggesting some differences in source contributions.
“However, these sites are grouped separately in the hierarchical clustering analysis (Figure 2b), suggesting some differences in source contributions.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
PremisecitationBoth landfills and wastewater treatment plants are known atmospheric sources of fluorotelomer alcohols and FOSE.
“Both landfills and wastewater treatment plants are known atmospheric sources of fluorotelomer alcohols and FOSE.33”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [33] source
Not checked in the free run.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
Study design and conductown dataWhole method recovery was 70-120% for all but four PFASs, which ranged from 60-70%, comparable to recoveries reported by previous studies.
“Whole method recovery tested using the positive controls was 70-120% for all but 4 PFASs that ranged from 60-70%, which is comparable to recoveries reported by previous studies.3,14,15.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checkedProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.
Study design and conductnone givenPrecipitation and flow rates in rivers tend to be higher in June, potentially causing enhanced dilution and a low bias for some PFASs measured in RI rivers compared to NY/NJ.
“Precipitation and flow rates in rivers tend to be higher in June, potentially resulting in enhanced dilution and a low bias for some PFASs measured in RI rivers compared to NY/NJ.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
PremisecitationPFOS was historically used as a mist/fume control agent in metal plating, in surface coatings, and as the major component in AFFFs for fighting petroleum-related fires.
“PFOS was historically used as a mist/fume control agent in metal plating, in surface coatings and as the major component in AFFFs for fighting petroleum related fire.25,26,34”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checkedProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Study design and conductown dataVariability between duplicates obtained at two sites was less than 20%.
“Variability between duplicates obtained at two sites was <20%.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
Study design and conductnone givenA caveat of the FRS-based source analysis is that not all listed facilities necessarily release PFASs and the database may not include all possible sources.
“A caveat of this analysis is that not all facilities included in the FRS database necessarily release PFASs and the database may not comprehensively include all possible sources.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
PremisecitationSome PFOS applications such as metal plating have been replaced by less stable fluorotelomer-based chemicals such as 6:2 FtS, which eventually degrade into PFPeA and PFHxA, with yields of 1.1% and 1.5% in activated sludge.
“Some PFOS applications such as metal plating have been replaced by less stable fluorotelomer based chemicals such as 6:2 FtS,35 which will eventually degrade into PFPeA and PFHxA (yields of 1.1% and 1.5% in activated sludge).36”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites [35] Persistent Organic Pollutants Review Committee of UNEP. Technical paper on the identificationand assessment of alternatives to the use of perfluorooctane sulfonicacid, its salts, perfluorooctane sulfonyl fluoride and their relatedchemicals in open applications. UNEP/POPS/POPRC.8/INF/17/Rev.1; (2012.
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [36] source
Not checked in the free run.
The authors state this as an assumption.
Branched isomers for PFOA, PFHxS, PFOS, N-MeFOSAA, and N-EtFOSAA have the same instrumental response factor as their linear isomers.
“We quantified branched isomers for perfluorooctanate (PFOA), perfluorohexane sulfonate (PFHxS), perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS), N-MeFOSAA and N-EtFOSAA using calibration standards for the linear isomers, assuming the same instrumental response factor (Table S3).”
The authors state this as an assumption.
The impact of a potential point source on a sampling site decays exponentially with hydrological distance from the source.
“Within each watershed, we defined an indicator for the impact of potential point sources as a function of distance from sampling locations by assuming exponential decay in the source signature19 (i.e., impact = 1/ed, where d = hydrological distance, km).”
The paper relies on this without support.
Few measurements of PFASs in U.S. surface waters are available over the past five years, and the importance of different sources is poorly understood.
“Few measurements are available for PFASs in U.S. surface waters over the past five years and the importance of different sources is poorly understood.”
The paper relies on this without support.
PFASs are used for water-resistant coating in textiles, and washing and disposal of wastewater at textile mills provides a vector for their entry to the aquatic environment.
“PFASs are used for water resistant coating in textiles and washing and disposal of wastewater at textile mills provides a vector for their entry to the aquatic environment.”
The paper relies on this without support.
N-MeFOSAA and N-EtFOSAA are intermediate degradation products from FOSE, with PFOS as the final degradation product.
“Both N-MeFOSAA and N-EtFOSAA are intermediate degradation products from the volatile parent compound N-alkyl perfluorooctane sulfamideoethanol (FOSE) with PFOS as the final degradation product.”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
Zhang et al. observed high PFAS concentrations in low water flow periods and low concentrations in high water periods.
“Zhang et al. (2016) observed high PFAS concentrations in low water flow periods, while low concentrations were observed for high water periods.”
From Per and poly-fluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) as a contaminant of emerging concern in surface water: A transboundary review of their occurrences and toxicity effects (2021) · cites this paper as Zhang et al., 2016
Methods > Sample collection and analysis (page not provided) says higher June river flow could have diluted some PFAS concentrations, supporting the proposed direction of the relationship. It does not report observing high concentrations during low-flow periods and low concentrations during high-flow periods; the samples were collected at different sites in June and October. (LLM, conf=0.85)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredCharacterizing regional contamination patterns due to diffuse PFAS emissions and important hydrogeological features can help identify major sources and model PFAS transport.
“Characterizing regional contamination patterns due to diffuse PFAS emissions and important hydrogeological features can help identify major sources (Silver et al., 2023; Zhang et al., 2016) and model PFAS transport (Brusseau et al., 2019).”
From PFAS in Iowa drinking water sources: Chemical and geospatial patterns (2025) · cites this paper as Zhang et al., 2016
Elevated levels of PFAAs at sites N11 and N12 might be explained by historical release of AFFF.
“The elevated levels of PFAAs in both sites might be explained by the historical release of AFFF as observed in several studies.44,45”
From Sources and Pathways of PFAS Occurrence in Water Sources: Relative Contribution of Land-Applied Biosolids in an Agricultural Dominated Watershed (2025) · cites this paper as [45]
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.
Abstract misidentifies the 43 ng L−1 compound as PFOS
MinorThe abstract assigns the 43 ng L−1 maximum to PFOS, while the results assign it to PFHxS and give 27 ng L−1 as the maximum for PFOS.
“The highest PFAS concentrations across sites were for perfluorooctanate (PFOA, 56 ng L−1) and perfluorohexane sulfonate (PFOS, 43 ng L−1)”
“Highest concentrations of PFHxS (43 ng L−1) and PFNA (14 ng L−1) were measured at Site 5 (Mill Cove, RI). The maximum PFOS concentration (27 ng L−1) was measured at Site 2 (Woonasquatucket River, RI) within the City of Providence, RI.”
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“For example, major sources of PFAS contamination in surface waters in New York State and Rhode Island, USA, included mixed industrial sources that predominantly release PFOS and PFOA, metal plating industry sites, and landfills (Zhang et al. 2016).”
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“Adsorption via activated carbon and ion exchange resins have been widely employed especially for pump‐and‐treat remediation to extract PFAS from polluted groundwater [52].”
BackgroundMicroplastics with adsorbed contaminants: Mechanisms and Treatment
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Recent Advances on PFAS Degradation via Thermal and Nonthermal Methods
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Concentration profiles of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances in major sources to the environment
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“…facilities, municipal landfills and wastewater treatment plants, airports, and sites where PFAS-containing fire-fighting foams (aqueous film-forming foam or AFFF) have been used are potential sources of PFAS discharges into surface water (Andrews et al., 2021; Hu et al., 2016; Zhang et al., 2016).”
BackgroundDassuncao, C., Pickard, H. M., Pfohl, M., Tokranov, A. K., Li, M., Mikkelsen, B., Slitt, A. L., & Sunderland, E. M. (2019) · Environmental Science & Technology Letters · doi:10.1021/acs.estlett.9b00031 · Cited by 160 · see citing works
Self-citationA review of per- and polyfluorinated alkyl substance impairment of reproduction
Chambers, W. S., Hopkins, J. G., & Richards, S. M. (2021) · Frontiers in Toxicology · doi:10.3389/ftox.2021.732436 · Cited by 164 · see citing works
“Keywords: PFAS, reproduction impairment, short-chain PFAS, GenX, ADONA, F53B Edited by: Laura N. Vandenberg, University of Massachusetts Amherst, United States Reviewed by: Atsuto Onoda, Sanyo-Onoda City University, Japan Jennifer Joan Adibi, University of Pittsburgh, United States *Correspondence: Sean M. Richards se…”
ResultInfluentialPoly- and perfluoroalkyl substances in seawater and plankton from the northwestern Atlantic Margin
Zhang, X., Lohmann, R., & Sunderland, E. M. (2019) · Environmental Science & Technology · doi:10.1021/acs.est.9b03230 · Cited by 163 · see citing works
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“Sorption of PFAS to a range of environmental solids has been studied for over a decade; most efforts have evaluated PFAA sorption, but more recent efforts have included a wide range of poly fl uorinated compounds (e.g., Zhi & Liu, 2018).”
Hu, X. C., Tokranov, A. K., Liddie, J. M., Zhang, X., Grandjean, P., Hart, J. E., Laden, F., Sun, Q., Yeung, L. W. Y., & Sunderland, E. M. (2019) · Environmental Health Perspectives · doi:10.1289/ehp4093 · Cited by 147 · see citing works
“Relevant industrial sources were thus identi fi ed following the methods outlined in previous work using the North American Industrial Classi fi cation System (NAICS) code (Table S9) (Zhang et al. 2016).”
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“Despite the wide use in an array of industrial and consumer products globally, information on the sources, volumes, and emission of PFOS and its precursors is and has been limited (Paul et al. 2009; Zhang et al. 2016; Ankley et al. 2020).”
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“Two long-chain, fully fluorinated PFASs, perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) and perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS), are ubiquitously present in natural waters (Boulanger et al., 2004; Lindim et al., 2016; Wang et al., 2015; Xiao et al., 2015; Zhang et al., 2016), drinking water (Hu et al.”
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Self-citationPrevalence and Implications of Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS) in Settled Dust
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Adverse Effects of Perfluorooctane Sulfonate on the Liver and Relevant Mechanisms
Wang, P., Liu, D., Yan, S., Cui, J., Liang, Y., & Ren, S. (2022) · Toxics · doi:10.3390/toxics10050265 · Cited by 80 · see citing works
Fluorine mass balance analysis of selected environmental samples from Norway
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Microplastics toxicity, detection, and removal from water/wastewater
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“Univariate analyses also help to inform future study and questionnaire designs.”
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Antell, E. H., Yi, S., Olivares, C. I., Ruyle, B. J., Kim, J. T., Tsou, K., Dixit, F., Alvarez‐Cohen, L., & Sedlak, D. L. (2023) · ACS ES&T Water · doi:10.1021/acsestwater.3c00106 · Cited by 62 · see citing works
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Poly- and Perfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS): Do They Matter to Aquatic Ecosystems?
Nayak, S., Sahoo, G., Das, I. I., Mohanty, A. K., Kumar, R., Sahoo, L., & Sundaray, J. K. (2023) · Toxics · doi:10.3390/toxics11060543 · Cited by 60 · see citing works
“rerio accumulated more PFNA than female fish did, and the transcription of genes associated with the reproductive system varied depending on sex, with levels of 17b-hsd, cyp19a, and star increasing in the female gonad while decreasing in the male gonad [27].”
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Impact of Hurricane Maria on Drinking Water Quality in Puerto Rico
Lin, Y., Sevillano, M., Jiang, T., Li, G., Cotto, I., Vosloo, S., Carpenter, C. M. G., Larese‐Casanova, P., Giese, R. W., Helbling, D. E., et al. (2020) · Environmental Science & Technology · doi:10.1021/acs.est.0c01655 · Cited by 55 · see citing works
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Zhang, S., Gitungo, S., Dyksen, J. E., Raczko, R. F., & Axe, L. (2021) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph18031288 · Cited by 53 · see citing works
Ecological characteristics impact PFAS concentrations in a U.S. North Atlantic food web
Hedgespeth, M. L., Taylor, D. L., Balint, S., Schwartz, M., & Cantwell, M. G. (2023) · The Science of The Total Environment · doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.163302 · Cited by 55 · see citing works
Joseph, N. T., Schwichtenberg, T., Cao, D., Jones, G. D., Rodowa, A. E., Barlaz, M. A., Charbonnet, J. A., Higgins, C. P., Field, J. A., & Helbling, D. E. (2023) · Environmental Science & Technology · doi:10.1021/acs.est.3c03770 · Cited by 53 · see citing works
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Lohmann, R., Abass, K. M., Bonefeld‐Jørgensen, E. C., Bossi, R., Dietz, R., Ferguson, S. H., Fernie, K. J., Grandjean, P., Herzke, D., Houde, M., et al. (2024) · The Science of The Total Environment · doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.176274 · Cited by 52 · see citing works
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“Another approach to identifying the source of PFAS in surface water or drinking water is to evaluate the ratio of certain types of PFAS associated with different industries (Zhang et al., 2016).”
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Per and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) at high concentrations in neonatal Australian pinnipeds
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“Per‐ and polyfluoroalkyl substances are integral to many consumer and industrial products including aqueous film‐forming foams (AFFFs; Ahrens et al., 2015; Zhang et al., 2016).”
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PFAS River Export Analysis Highlights the Urgent Need for Catchment-Scale Mass Loading Data
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“In summary, PFAS concentrations in fresh and estuarine surface waters range over several orders of magnitude, with higher concentrations near urban and industrialized areas and known point sources (Jarvis et al., 2021; Zhang et al., 2016).”
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- Authors
- Zhang, X., Lohmann, R., Dassuncao, C., Hu, X. C., Weber, A. K., Vecitis, C. D., & Sunderland, E. M.
- Affiliations
- Harvard University (US)
- University of Rhode Island (US)
- Harvard John A. Paulson School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138, United States
- Corresponding author
- Zhang, Xianming
- ORCID
- Venue
- Environmental Science & Technology Letters
- Publisher
- American Chemical Society (ACS)
- Published
- 2016-08-09
- Volume
- 3
- Issue
- 9
- Pages
- 316-321
- ISSN
- 2328-8930 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC5310642
- OpenAlex
- W2487559453
- Semantic Scholar
- 0b91f342242010202a8d1273c0d7272159fe8124
- Cited by
- 167
- References
- 31
- Citations by year
- 2026: 9 · 2025: 21 · 2024: 20 · 2023: 25 · 2022: 25 · 2021: 24 · 2020: 17 · 2019: 8 · 2018: 9 · 2017: 8 · 2016: 1
- FWCI
- 5.66
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- Environmental Science & Technology Letters (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Digital Access to Scholarship at Harvard (DASH) (Harvard University) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- Journal of Media Literacy Education (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- Funders
- National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (P30 ES000002)
- Richard and Susan Smith Family Foundation
- Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada (PDF-437949-2013)
- TomKat Foundation
- John A. Paulson School of Engineering and Applied Science, Harvard University
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Environmental Chemistry › Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances research
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Water Science and Technology › Fluoride Effects and Removal
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Health, Toxicology and Mutagenesis › Toxic Organic Pollutants Impact
- Keywords
- PFASs, source attribution, surface water contamination, perfluorooctanoic acid, PFHxS, PFOS, urban pollution, point source, textile mills, airports, smelting, atmospheric deposition, waste sector emissions, watershed analysis, Rhode Island, New York metropolitan area
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Claims read by deepseek-v4.1-flash under definition version 3 (extract-v3) on 2026-10-07.
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