Wastewater Treatment Plant and Landfills as Sources of Polyfluoroalkyl Compounds to the Atmosphere
Abstract
Polyfluoroalkyl compounds (PFCs) were determined in air around a wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) and two landfill sites using sorbent-impregnated polyurethane foam (SIP) disk passive air samplers in summer 2009. The samples were analyzed for five PFC classes (i.e., fluorotelomer alcohols (FTOHs), perfluorooctane sulfonamides (FOSAs), sulfonamidoethanols (FOSEs), perfluoroalkyl sulfonic acids (PFSAs), and perfluoroalkyl carboxylic acids (PFCAs)) to investigate their concentration in air, composition and emissions to the atmosphere. ∑PFC concentrations in air were 3-15 times higher within the WWTP (2280-24 040 pg/m(3)) and 5-30 times higher at the landfill sites (2780-26 430 pg/m(3)) compared to the reference sites (597-1600 pg/m3). Variations in the PFC pattern were observed between the WWTP and landfill sites and even within the WWTP site. For example, FTOHs were the predominant PFC class in air for all WWTP and landfill sites, with 6:2 FTOH as the dominant compound at the WWTP (895-12 290 pg/m(3)) and 8:2 FTOH dominating at the landfill sites (1290-17 380 pg/m(3)). Furthermore, perfluorooctane sulfonic acid (PFOS) was dominant within the WWTP (43-171 pg/m(3)), followed by perfluorobutanoic acid (PFBA) (55-116 pg/m(3)), while PFBA was dominant at the landfill sites (101-102 pg/m(3)). It is also noteworthy that the PFCA concentrations decreased with increasing chain length and that the emissions for the even chain length PFCAs outweighed emissions for the odd chain length compounds. Furthermore, highly elevated PFC concentrations were found near the aeration tanks compared to the other tanks (i.e., primary and secondary clarifier) and likely associated with increased volatilization during aeration that may be further enhanced through aqueous aerosol-mediated transport. ∑PFC yearly emissions estimated using a simplified dispersion model were 2560 g/year for the WWTP, 99 g/year for landfill site 1, and 1000 g/year for landfill site 2. These results highlight the important role of WWTPs and landfills as emission sources of PFCs to the atmosphere.
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Due to their high persistence and water solubility, PFAAs will be transported to remote locations from sources through water currents and aerosols.
“Due to their high persistence and water solubility, PFAAs will be transported to remote locations from sources through water currents and aerosols (as reviewed in Prevedouros et al. (2006)19 and Ahrens et al. (2011)20).”
From A Never-Ending Story of Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFASs)? (2017) · cites this paper as Ahrens et al. (2011)20
PFOA was detected directly through volatilization in natural water bodies or landfill environments.
“PFOA was detected directly through volatilization in natural water bodies or landfill environments”
From Evaluation of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) in leachate, gas condensate, stormwater and groundwater at landfills (2023) · cites this paper as Ahrens et al., 2011
Upon receiving discharges from various human and industrial activities, as well as landfill leachate, municipal WWTPs can be a significant PFAS contamination pathway.
“Upon receiving discharges from various human and industrial activities, as well as landfill leachate [2], municipal WWTPs can be a significant PFAS contamination pathway [44].”
From Investigating the extent of PFAS contamination in the Upper Danube Basin across environmental compartments (2025) · cites this paper as [2]
Both landfills and wastewater treatment plants are known atmospheric sources of fluorotelomer alcohols and FOSE.
“Both landfills and wastewater treatment plants are known atmospheric sources of fluorotelomer alcohols and FOSE.33”
From Source Attribution of Poly- and Perfluoroalkyl Substances (PFASs) in Surface Waters from Rhode Island and the New York Metropolitan Area (2016) · cites this paper as [33]
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Self-citation
- Authors
- Ahrens, L., Shoeib, M., Harner, T., Lee, S. C., Guo, R., & Reiner, E. J.
- Affiliations
- Environment and Climate Change Canada (CA)
- University of Toronto (CA)
- Corresponding author
- Ahrens, Lutz
- Shoeib, Mahiba
- Venue
- Environmental Science & Technology
- Publisher
- American Chemical Society (ACS)
- Published
- 2011-04-05
- Volume
- 45
- Issue
- 19
- Pages
- 8098-8105
- ISSN
- 0013-936X (ISSN-L)
- 1520-5851
- OpenAlex
- W2331675094
- Cited by
- 301
- References
- 38
- Citations by year
- 2026: 28 · 2025: 36 · 2024: 41 · 2023: 33 · 2022: 28 · 2021: 21 · 2020: 18 · 2019: 5 · 2018: 12 · 2017: 7 · 2016: 13 · 2015: 7 · 2014: 13 · 2013: 20 · 2012: 15
- FWCI
- 12.76
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Environmental Science & Technology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Environmental Chemistry › Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances research
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Health, Toxicology and Mutagenesis › Toxic Organic Pollutants Impact
- Life Sciences › Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmaceutics › Pharmaceutical Science › Fluorine in Organic Chemistry
- Keywords
- polyfluoroalkyl substances, wastewater treatment plants, landfill, fluorotelomer alcohols, PFOS, perfluorobutanoic acid, perfluorinated carboxylic acids, perfluorooctane sulfonamide, aeration tank, volatilization, atmospheric transport, emission inventory, air quality monitoring, passive air sampling, chain length distribution
- MeSH terms
- Atmosphere, Canada, Environmental Monitoring, Fluorocarbons, Polyurethanes, Water Pollutants, Chemical, Water Purification
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