Negativity and extremity biases in impression formation: A review of explanations.
Abstract
Mise au point sur les explications de certains biais lies aux recherches sur la formation des impressions, et presentation d'un modele fonde sur des indices de categorisation du stimulus pour rendre compte de tels biais
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“Although some studies have focused on more successful films, such as the top 50 or the top 100 in Variety lists (De Vany and Walls 1997; Litman and Ahn 1998; Smith and Smith 1986), our study contains a random sample of the films (both successes and failures).”
BackgroundGood News and Bad News: Asymmetric Responses to Economic Information
Soroka, S. N. (2006) · The Journal of Politics · doi:10.1111/j.1468-2508.2006.00413.x · Cited by 850 · see citing works
Pfarrer, M. D., Pollock, T. G., & Rindova, V. (2010) · Academy of Management Journal · doi:10.5465/amj.2010.54533222 · Cited by 842 · see citing works
“This is because failure can be attributed to many causes, but ability can be demonstrated only through successful performance (Skowronski & Carlston, 1987, 1989).”
BackgroundOn the Dominance of Moral Categories in Impression Formation
Wojciszke, B., Bazińska, R., & Jaworski, M. (1998) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/01461672982412001 · Cited by 757 · see citing works
The road to forgiveness: A meta-analytic synthesis of its situational and dispositional correlates
Fehr, R., Gelfand, M. J., & Nag, M. (2010) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/a0019993 · Cited by 749 · see citing works
Ochsner, K. N. (2000) · Journal of Experimental Psychology: General · doi:10.1037/0096-3445.129.2.242 · Cited by 704 · see citing works
Advice taking in decision making: egocentric discounting and reputation formation
Yaniv, I., & Kleinberger, E. (2000) · Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes · doi:10.1006/obhd.2000.2909 · Cited by 701 · see citing works
“In this respect, our studies bear similarity to impression formation studies, which typically involve judgments about hypothetical personality profiles and tend to emphasize the role of heuristic processes, such as confirmation bias, primacy effect, and negativity effect (Fiske, 1980; Hamilton & Huffman, 1971; Skowron…”
BackgroundResultInfluentialOn the Legitimacy of National High Courts
Gibson, J. L., Caldeira, G. A., & Baird, V. A. (1998) · American Political Science Review · doi:10.2307/2585668 · Cited by 690 · see citing works
Arbitrary metrics in psychology
Blanton, H., & Jaccard, J. (2006) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/0003-066x.61.1.27 · Cited by 681 · see citing works
“…moderately, very), the sheer frequency with which stimuli occur in the real world, and category activation processes (e.g., French-Lazovik & Gibson , 1984; Gannon & Ostrom, 1996; Hardin & Birnbaum, 1990; Rotter & Tinkleman, 1970; Skowronski & Carlston, 1989; Wedell & Parducci, 1988, 2000).”
BackgroundLabianca, G., & Brass, D. J. (2006) · Academy of Management Review · doi:10.5465/amr.2006.21318920 · Cited by 674 · see citing works
“Skowronski and Carlston (1989) summarize a number of theories that attempt to explain this negative asymmetry bias.”
BackgroundElectronic word of mouth (eWOM): How eWOM platforms influence consumer product judgement
Lee, M., & Youn, S. (2009) · International Journal of Advertising · doi:10.2501/s0265048709200709 · Cited by 662 · see citing works
Zavyalova, A., Pfarrer, M. D., Reger, R. K., & Shapiro, D. L. (2012) · Academy of Management Journal · doi:10.5465/amj.2010.0608 · Cited by 646 · see citing works
“For example, research has investigated the effects of wrongdoing associated with competence or capability and those associated with character or integrity (e.g., Mishina et al., 2012; Skowronski & Carlston, 1987, 1989).”
BackgroundMethodBaldwin, M. W., Keelan, J. P. R., Fehr, B., Enns, V., & Koh-Rangarajoo, E. (1996) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.71.1.94 · Cited by 632 · see citing works
“We speculate that this reflects a general tendency, observed in the impression formation literature (e.g., Anderson, 1965; Fiske, 1980; Hamilton & Zanna, 1972; Skowronski & Carlston, 1989 ), to disproportionately weight negative information when making judgments.”
ResultMalle, B. F., Guglielmo, S., & Monroe, A. E. (2014) · Psychological Inquiry · doi:10.1080/1047840x.2014.877340 · Cited by 632 · see citing works
Measuring the impact of positive and negative word of mouth on brand purchase probability
East, R., Hammond, K., & Lomax, W. (2008) · International Journal of Research in Marketing · doi:10.1016/j.ijresmar.2008.04.001 · Cited by 629 · see citing works
How Online Product Reviews Affect Retail Sales: A Meta-analysis
Floyd, K., Freling, R. E., Alhoqail, S. A., Cho, H. Y., & Freling, T. H. (2014) · Journal of Retailing · doi:10.1016/j.jretai.2014.04.004 · Cited by 631 · see citing works
The Effect of Online Consumer Reviews on New Product Sales
Cui, G., Lui, H., & Guo, X. (2012) · International Journal of Electronic Commerce · doi:10.2753/jec1086-4415170102 · Cited by 621 · see citing works
Asymmetric effects of online consumer reviews
Park, S., & Nicolau, J. L. (2014) · Annals of Tourism Research · doi:10.1016/j.annals.2014.10.007 · Cited by 597 · see citing works
“From the information process perspective, it can also be argued that negative information has stronger influences on individual’s judgement and choice than positive information (Skowronski & Carlston, 1989).”
BackgroundMorality and competence in person- and self-perception
Wojciszke, B. (2005) · European Review of Social Psychology · doi:10.1080/10463280500229619 · Cited by 553 · see citing works
“However, when the integrated information pertains solely to competence, a positivity effect is found (Brycz & Wojciszke, 1992; Kubicka-Daab, 1989; Skowronski & Carlston, 1987, 1989; Wojciszke, Brycz, & Borkenau, 1993).”
BackgroundInfluentialWhen does electronic word-of-mouth matter? A study of consumer product reviews
Zhang, J. Q., Crăciun, G., & Shin, D. (2010) · Journal of Business Research · doi:10.1016/j.jbusres.2009.12.011 · Cited by 543 · see citing works
“Other studies, however, find rather the opposite (e.g., Gershoff et al., 2003; Skowronski and Carlston, 1987, 1989).”
ResultVacationers and eWOM: Who Posts, and Why, Where, and What?
Bronner, F. E., & de Hoog, R. (2010) · Journal of Travel Research · doi:10.1177/0047287509355324 · Cited by 521 · see citing works
Socially Situated Cognition: Cognition in its Social Context
Smith, E. R., & Semin, G. R. (2004) · Advances in experimental social psychology · doi:10.1016/s0065-2601(04)36002-8 · Cited by 517 · see citing works
“Other aspects of social perception that were initially viewed as ‘‘biases,’’ such as greater sensitivity to negative information than to positive, are now also conceptualized as adaptive and pragmatically useful (Peeters, 1991; Skowronski & Carlston, 1989; Wentura et al., 2000).”
BackgroundEffects of Information About Firms’ Ethical and Unethical Actions on Consumers’ Attitudes
Folkes, V. S., & Kamins, M. A. (1999) · Journal of Consumer Psychology · doi:10.1207/s15327663jcp0803_03 · Cited by 504 · see citing works
Labianca, G., Brass, D. J., & Gray, B. (1998) · Academy of Management Journal · doi:10.2307/256897 · Cited by 496 · see citing works
Temporal Contiguity and Negativity Bias in the Impact of Online Word of Mouth
Chen, Z., & Lurie, N. H. (2013) · Journal of Marketing Research · doi:10.1509/jmr.12.0063 · Cited by 487 · see citing works
“Specifically, we find evidence that temporal contiguity cues mitigate the negativity bias even in an environment in which negative information is less frequent and thus potentially more diagnostic (Skowronski and Carlston 1989).”
BackgroundThinking is for doing: Portraits of social cognition from Daguerreotype to laserphoto.
Fiske, S. T. (1992) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-3514.63.6.877 · Cited by 476 · see citing works
The Effect of Brand Portfolio Characteristics on Consumer Evaluations of Brand Extensions
Dacin, P. A., & Smith, D. C. (1994) · Journal of Marketing Research · doi:10.1177/002224379403100207 · Cited by 505 · see citing works
Purohit, D., & Srivastava, J. (2001) · Journal of Consumer Psychology · doi:10.1207/s15327663jcp1003_1 · Cited by 472 · see citing works
“The cue diagnosticity framework views product quality assessment as a categorization process in which consumers use the available cues to assign a product to a specific quality category (Feldman & Lynch, 1988; Skowronski & Carlston, 1987, 1989).”
BackgroundResultCross-national evidence of a negativity bias in psychophysiological reactions to news
Soroka, S., Fournier, P., & Nir, L. (2019) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.1908369116 · Cited by 465 · see citing works
“Negative information alerts to potential dangers (13); it has special value in terms of “diagnosticity” (14), or the “vigilance” (15) that is required to avoid negative outcomes.”
The Role of Narratives in Consumer Information Processing
Adaval, R., & Wyer, R. S. (1998) · Journal of Consumer Psychology · doi:10.1207/s15327663jcp0703_01 · Cited by 460 · see citing works
The actor-observer asymmetry in attribution: A (surprising) meta-analysis.
Malle, B. F. (2006) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.132.6.895 · Cited by 453 · see citing works
“Second, there is strong evidence for a pervasive negativity bias in social judgment and self-regulation (Skowronski & Carlston, 1989; Taylor, 1991), which leads people to attend to and be more influenced by negative stimuli than positive stimuli.”
BackgroundFolk conceptions of fairness and unfairness
Lupfer, M. B., Weeks, K. P., Doan, K. A., & Houston, D. A. (2000) · European Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1002/(sici)1099-0992(200005/06)30:3 · Cited by 76 · see citing works
Herding in online product choice
Huang, J. S., & Chen, Y. (2006) · Psychology and Marketing · doi:10.1002/mar.20119 · Cited by 438 · see citing works
“Consistent with this view, the impression-formation literature also demonstrated that people placed more weight on negative rather than positive information when evaluating a product (Fiske, 1980; Skowronski & Carlston, 1989).”
ResultLange, P. A. M. V., & Kuhlman, D. M. (1994) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.67.1.126 · Cited by 430 · see citing works
“These findings complement prior research on impression formation (e.g., Rosenberg & Sedlak, 1972; Skowronski & Carlston, 1989 ) by providing evidence in support of the claim that differences in the way individuals weight and process information affects specific expectations, which in turn, may influence interpersonal…”
BackgroundResultInfluentialSnyder, M., & Stukas, A. A. (1999) · Annual Review of Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.50.1.273 · Cited by 430 · see citing works
“…effects (Madon et al 1997, Major et al 1988), whether diagnosticity varies according to whether traits concern ability or morality (Reeder & Brewer 1979; Skowronski & Carlston 1987, 1989), and about the role of global and circumscribed accuracy of expectations (Stukas & Snyder 1995, Swann 1984).”
BackgroundBeyond good and evil: The time-course of neural activity elicited by specific picture content.
Weinberg, A., & Hajcak, G. (2010) · Emotion · doi:10.1037/a0020242 · Cited by 425 · see citing works
“Indeed, people appear to use negative information more readily than positive when it comes to impression formation (e.g., Anderson , 1965; Fiske, 1980; Peeters & Czapinksi, 1990; Skowronski & Carlston, 1989).”
BackgroundThe Role of Public Trust During Pandemics: Implications for Crisis Communication
Siegrist, M., & Zingg, A. (2014) · European Psychologist · doi:10.1027/1016-9040/a000169 · Cited by 420 · see citing works
Brady, W. J., Crockett, M. J., & Van Bavel, J. J. (2020) · Perspectives on Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/1745691620917336 · Cited by 417 · see citing works
“…formation has consistently found that signs of bad behavior immediately capture our attention when forming character judgments (Fiske, 1980; Pratto & John, 1991; Skowronski & Carlston, 1989) and increase rates of learning about the traits of others (Siegel, Mathys, Rutledge, & Crockett, 2018).”
BackgroundMishina, Y., Block, E. S., & Mannor, M. J. (2011) · Strategic Management Journal · doi:10.1002/smj.958 · Cited by 407 · see citing works
The Impact of a Product-Harm Crisis on Marketing Effectiveness
van Heerde, H. J., Helsen, K., & Dekimpe, M. G. (2007) · Marketing Science · doi:10.1287/mksc.1060.0227 · Cited by 407 · see citing works
“Indeed, negative information is known to be more informative and persistent than positive information (Skowronski and Carlston 1989), and customer trust is more easily lost than restored (Holmes and Rempel 1989).”
BackgroundSoft News and Political Knowledge: Evidence of Absence or Absence of Evidence?
Baum, M. (2003) · Political Communication · doi:10.1080/10584600390211181 · Cited by 404 · see citing works
“Finally, additional research in social psychology (Skowronski & Carlston, 1987, 1989; Reeder & Spores, 1983) has shown that negative information tends to outweigh positive information in people’s evaluations of most issues or objects, particularly those related to moral judgment (e.g., “right” vs.…”
BackgroundPygmalion in the reintegration process: Desistance from crime through the looking glass
Maruna, S., LeBel, T. P., Mitchell, N., & Naples, M. (2004) · Psychology Crime and Law · doi:10.1080/10683160410001662762 · Cited by 397 · see citing works
How, when, and why bad apples spoil the barrel: negative group members and dysfunctional groups
Felps, W., Mitchell, T. R., & Byington, E. (2006) · Research in Organizational Behavior · doi:10.1016/s0191-3085(06)27005-9 · Cited by 395 · see citing works
Willemsen, L. M., Neijens, P. C., Bronner, F. E., & de Ridder, J. A. (2011) · Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication · doi:10.1111/j.1083-6101.2011.01551.x · Cited by 400 · see citing works
“These findings are indicative of a negativity bias, whereby negative information has a systematically stronger impact on judgment and choice than objectively equivalent positive information (Skowronski & Carlston, 1989).”
BackgroundInfluentialThe Moderating Role of Commitment on the Spillover Effect of Marketing Communications
Ahluwalia, R., Unnava, H. R., & Burnkrant, R. E. (2001) · Journal of Marketing Research · doi:10.1509/jmkr.38.4.458.18903 · Cited by 392 · see citing works
“…assumption underlying the novelty explanation is that novel or unexpected information is more diagnostic than expected information (Fiske 1980; Skowronski and Carlston 1989). subsequent effects of such detection on overall evaluations (e.g., the omission detection model; Kardes 1988;…”
BackgroundInfluentialTodorov, A. (2008) · Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1196/annals.1440.012 · Cited by 382 · see citing works
“In general, there is substantial evidence for the attention-grabbing power of negative information (e.g., Fiske 1980; Skowronski & Carlston 1989; Pratto & John 1991).”
BackgroundAntecedents and consequences of employee organizational cynicism: A meta-analysis
Chiaburu, D. S., Peng, A. C., Oh, I., Banks, G. C., & Lomeli, L. C. (2013) · Journal of Vocational Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.jvb.2013.03.007 · Cited by 391 · see citing works
Person as scientist, person as moralist
Knobe, J. (2010) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x10000907 · Cited by 376 · see citing works
Spencer‐Rodgers, J., Williams, M. J., & Peng, K. (2010) · Personality and Social Psychology Review · doi:10.1177/1088868310362982 · Cited by 377 · see citing works
“Research on impression formation, studied largely with American and Western European samples, shows that negative information more strongly influences people’s evaluations of others than does comparably extreme positive information (Skowronski & Carlston, 1989).”
BackgroundTest of a Trust and Confidence Model in the Applied Context of Electromagnetic Field (EMF) Risks
Siegrist, M., Earle, T. C., & Gutscher, H. (2003) · Risk Analysis · doi:10.1111/1539-6924.00349 · Cited by 368 · see citing works
“Further support for the asymmetry hypothesis stems from research showing that negative events have greater psychological impact than positive events in most contexts (Skowronski & Carlston, 1989; Taylor, 1991).”
ResultThe Impact of Interactive Corporate Social Responsibility Communication on Corporate Reputation
Eberle, D. J., Berens, G. A. J. M., & Li, T. (2013) · Journal of Business Ethics · doi:10.1007/s10551-013-1957-y · Cited by 369 · see citing works
“On the one hand, research in social psychology has often demonstrated that negative information has a stronger impact on people’s attitudes and impressions than positive information (see Skowronski and Carlston 1989; Rozin and Royzman 2001).”
BackgroundResultInfluentialWong, E. S. (2010) · Cited by 351 · see citing works
Tsao, W.-C., Hsieh, M.-T., Shih, L.-W., & Lin, T. M. Y. (2015) · International Journal of Hospitality Management · doi:10.1016/j.ijhm.2015.01.008 · Cited by 349 · see citing works
“Repeated exposure to negative reviews is particularly damaging to booking intention, which accords with the negativity effect proposed in the past (Skowronski and Carlston, 1989).”
BackgroundLöckenhoff, C. E., & Carstensen, L. L. (2007) · Psychology and Aging · doi:10.1037/0882-7974.22.1.134 · Cited by 346 · see citing works
A Social Reaction Model of Adolescent Health Risk
Gibbons, F. X., Gerrard, M., & Lane, D. J. (2003) · doi:10.1002/9780470753552.ch5 · Cited by 346 · see citing works
The agony of ambivalence and ways to resolve it: Introducing the MAID model
van Harreveld, F., van der Pligt, J., & de Liver, Y. N. (2009) · Personality and Social Psychology Review · doi:10.1177/1088868308324518 · Cited by 343 · see citing works
“…possible negative outcomes generally tend to loom larger than positive outcomes (Eyal, Liberman, Trope, & Walther, 2004), and research on the negativity bias (e.g., Ito, Larsen, Smith, & Cacioppo, 1998; Skrowonski & Carlston, 1989) suggests that these negative thoughts carry considerable weight.”
BackgroundWhy most people disapprove of me: experience sampling in impression formation.
Denrell, J. (2005) · Psychology Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.112.4.951 · Cited by 296 · see citing works
Consumer Demand for Cynical and Negative News Frames
Trussler, M., & Soroka, S. (2014) · The International Journal of Press/Politics · doi:10.1177/1940161214524832 · Cited by 334 · see citing works
“…to the negativity bias: Humans tend to be mildly optimistic; negative information is thus further away from our expectations than is positive information; and we thus view negative information as more deviant and potentially more useful as well (e.g., Fiske 1980; Skowronski and Carlston 1989).”
BackgroundUtz, S. (2010) · Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication · doi:10.1111/j.1083-6101.2010.01522.x · Cited by 336 · see citing works
“Other models argue that negative information, especially in the domain of morality judgments, receives a higher weight (De Bruin & Van Lange, 1999; Reeder & Coovert, 1986; Skowronski & Carlston, 1987, 1989).”
BackgroundPan, L., & Chiou, J. (2011) · Journal of Interactive Marketing · doi:10.1016/j.intmar.2011.01.002 · Cited by 325 · see citing works
“…that consumers typically give greater weight to negative information than to equally extreme but positive information (Fiske 1992; Kanouse and Hanson 1972; Skowronski and Carlston 1989), so it is likely that consumers will trust online negative eWOM information more than positive information.”
BackgroundA Meta-analytic Investigation of the Role of Valence in Online Reviews
Purnawirawan, N., Eisend, M., Pelsmacker, P. D., & Dens, N. (2015) · Journal of Interactive Marketing · doi:10.1016/j.intmar.2015.05.001 · Cited by 325 · see citing works
“According to the accessibility– diagnosticity theory (Feldman and Lynch 1988; Skowronski and Carlston 1989) negative information has a systematically stronger influence on judgment than the equivalent positive information (Ahluwalia and Gürhan-Canli 2000; Herr, Kardes, and Kim 1991).”
(1999) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.36-5356 · Cited by 321 · see citing works
Attitude formation through exploration: Valence asymmetries.
Fázio, R. H., Eiser, J. R., & Shook, N. J. (2004) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.87.3.293 · Cited by 314 · see citing works
“The valence findings are reminiscent of the well-documented asymmetry in impression formation concerning the typically greater impact of negative information about a target on social judgments (see Skowronski & Carlston, 1989; Taylor, 1991).”
BackgroundEffects of Positive Practices on Organizational Effectiveness
Cameron, K. S., Mora, C., Leutscher, T., & Calarco, M. M. (2011) · The Journal of Applied Behavioral Science · doi:10.1177/0021886310395514 · Cited by 327 · see citing works
Examination of Psychological Processes Underlying Resistance to Persuasion
Ahluwalia, R. (2000) · Journal of Consumer Research · doi:10.1086/314321 · Cited by 312 · see citing works
“…by various variables such as its content, that is, the amount of strong and diagnostic information (Anderson 1981; Petty and Cacioppo 1986; Skowronski and Carlston 1989), its level of repetition (Anand and Sternthal 1990), and the ability of the respondents to counterargue it (Petty and…”
BackgroundThe Effects of Negativity and Motivated Information Processing During a Political Campaign
Meffert, M. F., Chung, S., Joiner, A. J., Waks, L., & Garst, J. (2006) · Journal of Communication · doi:10.1111/j.1460-2466.2006.00003.x · Cited by 305 · see citing works
Why positive information is processed faster: The density hypothesis.
Unkelbach, C., Fiedler, K., Bayer, M., Stegmüller, M., & Danner, D. (2008) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.95.1.36 · Cited by 301 · see citing works
In search of the powerful self-fulfilling prophecy
Madon, S., Jussim, L., & Eccles, J. (1997) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.72.4.791 · Cited by 304 · see citing works
“People often consider negative information more useful than positive information (e.g., Kanouse & Hanson, 1971; Skowronski & Carlston, 1989; Taylor, 1991).”
BackgroundWhen Do Price Promotions Affect Pretrial Brand Evaluations?
Raghubir, P., & Corfman, K. P. (1999) · Journal of Marketing Research · doi:10.1177/002224379903600206 · Cited by 292 · see citing works
Distinguishing among models of contextually induced preference reversals.
Wedell, D. H. (1991) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1037/0278-7393.17.4.767 · Cited by 289 · see citing works
“Research on these models has demonstrated that differential weights may depend on, among other things, the salience of the information (Fiske, 1980), the diagnosticity of the information (Skowronski & Carlston, 1989), and the reliability of the information (Birnbaum & Stegner, 1979).”
BackgroundCharacteristics and Consequences of Expectation Violations in Close Relationships
Afifi, W. A., & Metts, S. (1998) · Journal of Social and Personal Relationships · doi:10.1177/0265407598153004 · Cited by 285 · see citing works
The Nature and Role of Affect in Consumer Behavior
Cohen, J. B., Pham, M. T., & Andrade, E. B. (2015) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9780203809570.ch11 · Cited by 287 · see citing works
Toward a positive psychology of relationships.
Reis, H. T., & Gable, S. L. (2003) · American Psychological Association eBooks · doi:10.1037/10594-006 · Cited by 283 · see citing works
Qiu, L., Pang, J., & Lim, K. H. (2012) · Decision Support Systems · doi:10.1016/j.dss.2012.08.020 · Cited by 280 · see citing works
Trust, the Asymmetry Principle, and the Role of Prior Beliefs
Poortinga, W., & Pidgeon, N. (2004) · Risk Analysis · doi:10.1111/j.0272-4332.2004.00543.x · Cited by 268 · see citing works
“The most common explanation for the asymmetry principle is that negative information is more informative or diagnostic than positive information (Skowronski & Carlston, 1989; Siegrist & Cvetkovich, 2001).”
BackgroundDo social product features have value to consumers?
Auger, P., Devinney, T. M., Louviere, J. J., & Burke, P. F. (2008) · International Journal of Research in Marketing · doi:10.1016/j.ijresmar.2008.03.005 · Cited by 270 · see citing works
- Authors
- Skowronski, J. J., & Carlston, D. E.
- Affiliations
- The Ohio State University Newark (US)
- ORCID
- Skowronski, John J.
- Venue
- Psychological Bulletin
- Published
- 1989
- Volume
- 105
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 131-142
- ISSN
- 0033-2909 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1455
- OpenAlex
- W1981706854
- Cited by
- 1,550
- References
- 98
- Citations by year
- 2026: 39 · 2025: 49 · 2024: 46 · 2023: 61 · 2022: 43 · 2021: 73 · 2020: 90 · 2019: 84 · 2018: 64 · 2017: 72 · 2016: 56 · 2015: 58 · 2014: 68 · 2013: 70 · 2012: 51
- FWCI
- 48.95
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Psychological Bulletin (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Social and Intergroup Psychology
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Categorization, perception, and language
- Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › General Decision Sciences › Decision-Making and Behavioral Economics
- Keywords
- negativity bias, impression formation, stimulus classification, social perception
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
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