The DOI matches its Crossref record; 66 of the 67 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
Telling more than we can know: Verbal reports on mental processes.
Abstract
Evidence is reviewed which suggests that there may be little or no direct introspective access to higher order cognitive processes. Subjects are sometimes (a) unaware of the existence of a stimulus that importantly influenced a response, (b) unaware of the existence of the response, and (c) unaware that the stimulus has affected the response. It is proposed that when people attempt to report on their cognitive processes, that is, on the processes mediating the effects of a stimulus on a response, they do not do so on the basis of any true introspection. Instead, their reports are based on a priori, implicit causal theories, or judgments about the extent to which a particular stimulus is a plausible cause of a given response. This suggests that though people may not be able to observe directly their cognitive processes, they will sometimes be able to report accurately about them. Accurate reports will occur when influential stimuli are salient and are plausible causes of the responses they produce, and will not occur when stimuli are not salient or are not plausible causes.
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“they can also often be unfaithful accounts of individuals' cognitive processes (Nisbett and Wilson, 1977).”
From Language Models Don't Always Say What They Think: Unfaithful Explanations in Chain-of-Thought Prompting (2023) · cites this paper as Nisbett and Wilson, 1977
In the citing paper
“One often is not aware of why one loves, hates, likes, or dislikes (Nisbett and Wilson, 1977; Wilson, 2002).”
From Impulsive action: emotional impulses and their control (2014) · cites this paper as Nisbett and Wilson, 1977
In the citing paper
“In addition, adolescent samples may be likely to underreport mental health symptoms [48,49]”
From Feasibility and effectiveness of a web-based positive psychology program for youth mental health: Randomized controlled trial (2014) · cites this paper as [49]
In the citing paper
“the extent to which people have introspective access to psychological processes has been disputed”
From Unawareness of Attitudes, Their Environmental Causes, and Their Behavioral Effects (2025) · cites this paper as Nisbett & Wilson 1977
In the citing paper
“It is also important to emphasize that many of these top-down influences occur automatically and without awareness (Kunda, 1990; Nickerson, 1998; Nisbett & Wilson, 1977; Wilson & Brekke, 1994).”
From Biased and biasing: the hidden bias cascade and bias snowball effects (2025) · cites this paper as Nisbett & Wilson, 1977
In the citing paper
“they may be unable to infer cognitive processes such as EF (Nisbett and Wilson 1977)”
From Executive Function Deficits in Daily Life Prospectively Predict Increases in Depressive Symptoms (2014) · cites this paper as Nisbett and Wilson 1977
In the citing paper
“They may, nonetheless, prefer TRI due to social convention (i.e. they use it because others seem to use it [57] or because they are accustomed to relying on it [58]).”
From Digital Identity: The effect of trust and reputation information on user judgement in the Sharing Economy (2018) · cites this paper as [57]
In the citing paper
“Considerable experimental evidence indicates that some features of human emotion and motivation cannot actually be accessed well via introspection or described in subjective reports (Nisbett and Wilson, 1978; Wilson and Schooler, 1991; Schwarz, 1999; Dijksterhuis et al., 2006; Schooler and Mauss, 2010; Greenwald and Banaji, 2017; Torre and Lieberman, 2018).”
From Evolving Concepts of Emotion and Motivation (2018) · cites this paper as Nisbett and Wilson, 1978
In the citing paper
“The perceived transparency of human decision-making stems from a belief that introspection provides direct access into the psychological processes by which people make decisions 17 .”
From Understanding, explaining, and utilizing medical artificial intelligence (2021) · cites this paper as [17]
In the citing paper
“Because selfreports can diverge from underlying cognitive processes (Nisbett and Wilson, 1977), these analyses are interpreted as complementary indicators of monitoring correspondence rather than proof of a unitary metacognitive-dependence construct.”
From College students' metacognitive awareness of generative-AI reliance: an experimental study of decision confidence and attribution bias (2026) · cites this paper as Nisbett and Wilson, 1977
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Hausman, A. V. (2000) · Journal of Consumer Marketing · doi:10.1108/07363760010341045 · Cited by 928
On the conflict between logic and belief in syllogistic reasoning
Evans, J. S. B. T., Barston, J. L., & Pollard, P. (1983) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/bf03196976 · Cited by 841
Quality control in qualitative research
Stiles, W. B. (1993) · Clinical Psychology Review · doi:10.1016/0272-7358(93)90048-q · Cited by 889
Cunningham, M. R., Roberts, A., Barbee, A. P., Druen, P. B., & Wu, C. (1995) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.68.2.261 · Cited by 862
Knowledge Calibration: What Consumers Know and What They Think They Know
Alba, J. W., & Hutchinson, J. W. (2000) · Journal of Consumer Research · doi:10.1086/314317 · Cited by 832
A Psychological Study of the Inverse Relationship Between Perceived Risk and Perceived Benefit
Alhakami, A. S., & Slovic, P. (1994) · Risk Analysis · doi:10.1111/j.1539-6924.1994.tb00080.x · Cited by 1,151
Golden, B. R. (1992) · Academy of Management Journal · doi:10.2307/256318 · Cited by 815
Experiential avoidance as a functional dimensional approach to psychopathology: An empirical review
Chawla, N., & Ostafin, B. (2007) · Journal of Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1002/jclp.20400 · Cited by 805
The use of statistical heuristics in everyday inductive reasoning.
Nisbett, R. E., Krantz, D. H., Jepson, C., & Kunda, Z. (1983) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.90.4.339 · Cited by 836
Self-citationThinking aloud: reconciling theory and practice
Boren, T., & Ramey, J. A. (2000) · IEEE Transactions on Professional Communication · doi:10.1109/47.867942 · Cited by 849
“Nisbett and Wilson’s [ 8 ] critique must still be addressed or shown not to be applicable to the research questions of interest.”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialDent, A. L., & Koenka, A. C. (2015) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-015-9320-8 · Cited by 1,011
“Doing so is susceptible to Bmemory failure and distortions^, both of which reduce the accuracy of students’ recollections (Veenman 2011, p. 207; Ericsson and Simon 1993; Nisbett and Wilson 1977).”
"Mood contagion": The automatic transfer of mood between persons.
Neumann, R., & Strack, F. (2000) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-3514.79.2.211 · Cited by 837
The role of impulsive behavior in drug abuse
Perry, J. L., & Carroll, M. E. (2008) · Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1007/s00213-008-1173-0 · Cited by 805
“However, it is also possible that limitations in individuals’ abilities to report the cognitive processes underlying their behavior (Nisbett and Wilson 1977) play a role in the inconsistency between selfreport and operational measures of impulsivity.”
Background
Metadata
- Authors
- Nisbett, R. E., & Wilson, T. D.
- ORCID
- Wilson, Timothy D.
- Venue
- Psychological Review
- Published
- 1977-05
- Volume
- 84
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 231-259
- ISSN
- 0033-295X (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1471
- OpenAlex
- W2164558494
- Cited by
- 11,317
- References
- 67
- Citations by year
- 2026: 297 · 2025: 273 · 2024: 198 · 2023: 373 · 2022: 260 · 2021: 346 · 2020: 432 · 2019: 492 · 2018: 345 · 2017: 335 · 2016: 334 · 2015: 360 · 2014: 333 · 2013: 323 · 2012: 362
- FWCI
- 129.11
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Psychological Review (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › Philosophy › Philosophy and Theoretical Science
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory Processes and Influences
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Cognitive Science and Education Research
- Keywords
- self-reflection, introspective access, causal judgment, salience, higher-order cognition
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