A context maintenance and retrieval model of organizational processes in free recall
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The authors present the context maintenance and retrieval (CMR) model of memory search, a generalized version of the temporal context model of M. W. Howard and M. J. Kahana (2002a), which proposes that memory search is driven by an internally maintained context representation composed of stimulus-related and source-related features. In the CMR model, organizational effects (the tendency for related items to cluster during the recall sequence) arise as a consequence of associations between active context elements and features of the studied material. Semantic clustering is due to longstanding context-to-item associations, whereas temporal clustering and source clustering are both due to associations formed during the study episode. A behavioral investigation of the three forms of organization provides data to constrain the CMR model, revealing interactions between the organizational factors. Finally, the authors discuss the implications of CMR for their understanding of a broad class of episodic memory phenomena and suggest ways in which this theory may guide exploration of the neural correlates of memory search.
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Most existing consolidation and recall models take the memory system's input to be discrete items that are remembered one by one.
“Most extant models of memory consolidation (McClelland et al., 1995) and recall (Polyn, Norman, & Kahana, 2009) have been formulated under the assumption that the input to the memory system is a series of discrete items to be remembered.”
From Discovering Event Structure in Continuous Narrative Perception and Memory (2017) · cites this paper as Polyn, Norman, & Kahana, 2009
The temporal context framework can explain boundary effects on memory by positing a rapid rise in drift rate.
“Within the temporal context framework, an abrupt increase in contextual drift rate can explain boundary effects on memory [37], but what might drive this increase?”
From Does mental context drift or shift? (2017) · cites this paper as [37]
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Curiel, J. M., & Radvansky, G. A. (1998) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1037/0278-7393.24.1.202 · Cited by 51 · see citing works
Computational Models of Episodic Memory
Norman, K. A., Detre, G. J., & Polyn, S. M. (2001) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511816772.011 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
Self-citationLure similarity affects visual episodic recognition: Detailed tests of a noisy exemplar model
Kahana, M. J., Zhou, F., Geller, A. S., & Sekuler, R. (2007) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/bf03193596 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
Self-citationEmpirical and theoretical limits on lag recency in free recall
Farrell, S., & Lewandowsky, S. (2008) · Psychonomic Bulletin & Review · doi:10.3758/pbr.15.6.1236 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
An examination of the continuous distractor task and the “long-term recency effect”
Koppenaal, L., & Glanzer, M. (1990) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/bf03197094 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
Bhatarah, P., Ward, G., & Tan, L. (2006) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1037/0278-7393.32.2.215 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
An improved algorithm for predicting free recalls
Laming, D. (2008) · Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.cogpsych.2008.01.001 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
A functional relation between learning and organization in free recall
Kahana, M. J., & Wingfield, A. (2000) · Psychonomic Bulletin & Review · doi:10.3758/bf03214365 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
Self-citationStudies in incidental learning: IV. The interaction of orienting tasks and stimulus materials.
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Representing task context: proposals based on a connectionist model of action
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Associative processes in immediate recency
Howard, M. W., Venkatadass, V., Norman, K. A., & Kahana, M. J. (2007) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/bf03193503 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
Self-citationTraveling economically through memory space: Characterizing output order in memory for serial order
Lewandowsky, S., Brown, G. D. A., & Thomas, J. L. (2009) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/mc.37.2.181 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
Short-term memory after all: Comment on Sederberg, Howard, and Kahana (2008).
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Retrieved context and the discovery of semantic structure.
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Clustering by visual shape in the free recall of pictorial stimuli.
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Evidence against a short-term-store account of long-term recency effects
Thapar, A., & Greene, R. L. (1993) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/bf03208265 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
Further evidence for organization by modality in immediate free recall.
Nilsson, L. (1974) · Journal of Experimental Psychology · doi:10.1037/h0037406 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
Kahana, M. J., Sederberg, P. B., & Howard, M. W. (2008) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/a0013724 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Self-citationRutherford, A. (2000) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/bf03211842 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Flagged first, then by citations
Research works printed but not linked: 4
- Baddeley AD Working memory 1986 Clarendon Press Oxford, England
- Friendly M Methods for finding graphic representations of associative memory structures Memory organization and structure 1979 85 129 Academic Press New York
- Polyn SM Neuroimaging, behavioral, and computational investigations of memory targeting 2005 Princeton University Unpublished doctoral dissertation
- Puff CR Puff CR Memory organization research and theory: The state of the art Memory organization and structure 1979 3 17 Academic Press New York
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Discovering Event Structure in Continuous Narrative Perception and Memory
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Mechanisms for widespread hippocampal involvement in cognition.
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Ward, G., Tan, L., & Grenfell-Essam, R. (2010) · Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition · doi:10.1037/a0020122 · Cited by 159 · see citing works
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- Authors
- Polyn, S. M., Norman, K. A., & Kahana, M. J.
- Affiliations
- University of Pennsylvania (US)
- Princeton University (US)
- Venue
- Psychological Review
- Published
- 2009
- Volume
- 116
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 129-156
- ISSN
- 0033-295X (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1471
- PMC
- PMC2630591
- OpenAlex
- W2077011549
- Cited by
- 726
- References
- 137
- Citations by year
- 2026: 58 · 2025: 49 · 2024: 89 · 2023: 60 · 2022: 56 · 2021: 51 · 2020: 52 · 2019: 51 · 2018: 45 · 2017: 44 · 2016: 19 · 2015: 32 · 2014: 26 · 2013: 27 · 2012: 24
- FWCI
- 10.85
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- Psychological Review (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institutes of Health (MH078513, MH069456, MH055687)
- National Institute of Mental Health (P50 MH062196)
- Dana Foundation
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory Processes and Influences
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory and Neural Mechanisms
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Functions and Memory
- Keywords
- memory search, free recall, semantic clustering, temporal clustering, source clustering, episodic memory
- MeSH terms
- Association Learning, Attention, Humans, Memory, Short-Term, Models, Psychological, Reaction Time, Mental Recall, Retention, Psychology, Semantics, Serial Learning, Verbal Learning, Models, Statistical, Neural Networks, Computer, Recognition, Psychology
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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