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Cited by 2,213Soil Carbon and Nitrogen DynamicsSoil erosion and sediment transportSoil Management and Crop Yield

Climate-smart soils

Open access
Paustian, Keith, Lehmann, Johannes, Ogle, Stephen, Reay, David, Robertson, G. Philip, Smith, Pete·2016·Nature
DOI 10.1038/nature17174
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Abstract

Soils are integral to the function of all terrestrial ecosystems and to food and fibre production. An overlooked aspect of soils is their potential to mitigate greenhouse gas emissions. Although proven practices exist, the implementation of soil-based greenhouse gas mitigation activities are at an early stage and accurately quantifying emissions and reductions remains a substantial challenge. Emerging research and information technology developments provide the potential for a broader inclusion of soils in greenhouse gas policies. Here we highlight 'state of the art' soil greenhouse gas research, summarize mitigation practices and potentials, identify gaps in data and understanding and suggest ways to close such gaps through new research, technology and collaboration.

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

Soils can mitigate greenhouse gases through carbon sequestration and reduced N₂O/CH₄ emissions, but implementation is early-stage and quantification remains difficult. The paper synthesizes known practices, global mitigation potentials, and research/technology gaps needed for climate-smart soil management.

Key findings

  • Land use contributes ~25% of global anthropogenic GHG emissions: 10–14% directly from agricultural production and 12–17% from land-cover change; soils contribute 37% of agricultural emissions, mainly as N₂O and CH₄.
  • Soil organic carbon stocks are large: ca. 1500 Pg C to 1 m and 2400 Pg C to 2 m, about three times atmospheric CO₂ (~830 Pg C) and 240 times annual fossil fuel emissions (~10 Pg).
  • Global soil GHG mitigation potential is estimated at 5.3 Pg CO₂ eq yr⁻¹ absent economic constraints, falling to 1.5 Pg CO₂ eq yr⁻¹ at $20 per Mg CO₂ eq; biochar adds 1–1.8 Pg CO₂ eq yr⁻¹, and overall potential could be as high as ~8 Pg CO₂ eq yr⁻¹.
  • Management options include cover crops, reduced tillage, perennials, improved N management, and water/residue management in rice; nitrification inhibitors can reduce N₂O fluxes up to 40% in some soils, and rice drainage/residue alterations could reduce CH₄ by ~25% or 7.6 Tg CH₄ yr⁻¹ globally.

Methods

  • Review/synthesis paper, not a primary experimental study: it highlights state-of-the-art soil GHG research, summarizes mitigation practices and potentials, identifies data/understanding gaps, and suggests research, technology, and collaboration pathways.
  • Draws on field, laboratory, and modelling research, including cited global analyses such as Smith et al. for climate-stratified mitigation modelling with economic and land-use models, and Woolf et al. for biochar life-cycle technical potential.
  • Main analysis is qualitative and quantitative synthesis of existing literature, with global potentials expressed as ranges under varying carbon prices, adoption rates, and land areas.

Limitations

  • The paper states that implementation of soil-based GHG mitigation is early-stage; accurately quantifying emissions and reductions is a significant challenge, with high temporal and spatial variability, limited field-scale CH₄ flux data, and gaps in process understanding.
  • It notes that empirical models can be biased if measurements do not reflect project conditions, while process-based models carry uncertainty from incomplete process understanding, parameterization, and input data; uncertainty is larger for single-farm reporting but can be reduced by aggregating farms.
  • Evident from the text: as a review/perspective, it presents no new primary data, and global mitigation estimates depend on cited models, assumed carbon prices, adoption rates, and land areas; the root-enhancement estimate is explicitly a first-order analog rather than a published global estimate.

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1038/nature17174

Cites

94 of 94 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Nothing to recompute.

Claims the paper makes

0 of 118 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged

  • Findingcitation

    A first-order estimate of ~1 Pg CO2 eq yr-1 is shown for enhanced root phenotypes, using as an analog, global average C accrual rates (0.23 Mg C ha-1 yr-1) for cover crops applied to 50% of the cropland land area used by Smith et al.

    “a first-order estimate of ~1 Pg CO 2 eq yr -1 is shown, using as an analog, global average C accrual rates (0.23 Mg C ha -1 yr -1 ) for cover crops 24 , applied to 50% of the cropland land area used by Smith et al. 18 .”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [24] Wilhelm, W. W., Johnson, J. M. F., Hatfield, J. L., Voorhees, W. B. & Linden, D. R. Crop and soil productivity response to corn residue removal: a literature review. Agron. J. 96, 1–17 (2004) source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [18] IPCC. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories (eds Eggleston, S., Buendia, L., Miwa, K., Ngara, T. & Tanabe, K. ) Vol. 4, Agriculture, Forestry and Other Land Use (AFOLU) http://www.ipcc-nggip.iges.or.jp/public/2006gl/vol4.html (Institute for Global Environmental Strategies, 2006)

      Not checked in the free run.

    • Rests on an assumption: Global estimates of the potential impact of enhanced root phenotypes for crops have not been published.
  • Interpretationreasoning

    Increasing net soil C storage by even a few percent represents a significant C sink potential.

    “Thus, increasing net soil C storage by even a few percent represents a significant C sink potential.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Interpretationreasoning

    Avoided conversion and degradation of native ecosystems is a strong mitigation alternative.

    “Hence, avoided conversion and degradation of native ecosystems is a strong mitigation alternative.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Premisereasoning

    Native ecosystems usually support significantly higher soil C stocks than their agricultural counterparts.

    “accordingly, native ecosystems usually support significantly higher soil C stocks than their agricultural counterparts”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [13] West, T. O. & Six, J. Considering the influence of sequestration duration and carbon saturation on estimates of soil carbon capacity. Clim. Change 80, 25–41 (2007) source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [14] Davidson, E. A. & Ackerman, I. L. Changes in soil carbon inventories following cultivation of previously untilled soils. Biogeochemistry 20, 161–193 (1993) source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Premisecitation

    Soils constitute the largest terrestrial organic C pool (ca. 1500 Pg C to 1 m depth; 2400 Pg C to 2 m depth).

    “Soils constitute the largest terrestrial organic C pool (ca.1500 Pg C to 1 m depth; 2400 Pg C to 2 m depth 10 )”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [10] Join the 4‰ Initiative Soils for Food Security and Climate http://agriculture.gouv.fr/join-40-initiative-soils-food-security-and-climate-0 (accessed 23 Sept 2015)

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims. 44
  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 16

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisereasoning

    Improved soil management can substantially reduce agricultural GHG emissions and sequester some of the CO2 removed from the atmosphere by plants as soil organic carbon.

    “While soils contribute a major share (37%; mainly as N 2 O and CH 4 ) of agricultural emissions 3 , improved soil management can substantially reduce these emissions and sequester some of the CO 2 removed from the atmosphere by plants, as carbon (C) in soil organic matter”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Soil C stocks can be increased by increasing organic matter inputs or by reducing decomposition rates, or both, leading to net removal of C from the atmosphere.

    “hence, C stocks can be increased by increasing organic matter inputs or by reducing decomposition rates (e.g., by reducing soil disturbance), or both, leading to net removal of C from the atmosphere 11”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [11] Batjes, N. H. Total carbon and nitrogen in the soils of the world. Eur. J. Soil Sci. 47, 151–163 (1996) source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Restoration of marginal or degraded lands to perennial forest or grassland increases soil C storage, although usually at a slower rate than the original conversion losses.

    “Conversely, restoration of marginal or degraded lands to perennial forest or grassland increases soil C storage (Fig. 1), although usually at a slower rate than the original conversion losses 15,16”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [15] Ogle, S. M., Breidt, F. J. & Paustian, K. Agricultural management impacts on soil organic carbon storage under moist and dry climatic conditions of temperate and tropical regions. Biogeochemistry 72, 87–121 (2005) source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [16] Conant, R. T., Paustian, K. & Elliott, E. T. Grassland management and conversion into grassland: effects on soil carbon. Ecol. Appl. 11, 343–355 (2001) source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Soil C sequestration is one of a few strategies that could be applied at large scales and potentially at low cost.

    “Soil C sequestration is one of a few strategies that could be applied at large scales 8 and potentially at low cost”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [8] Kahiluoto, H., Smith, P., Moran, D. & Olesen, J. E. Enabling food security by verifying agricultural carbon sequestration. Nature Clim. Change 4, 309–311 (2014) source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Wise soil management that increases organic matter and tightens the soil nitrogen cycle can yield synergies: enhanced fertility and productivity, increased soil biodiversity, reduced erosion, runoff and water pollution, and buffering of crop and pasture systems against climate change impacts.

    “wise soil management that increases organic matter and tightens the soil nitrogen (N) cycle can yield powerful synergies, such as enhanced fertility and productivity, increased soil biodiversity, reduced erosion, runoff and water pollution, and can help buffer crop and pasture systems against the impacts of climate change 4”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [4] Smith, P. Soils and climate change. Curr. Opin. Environ. Sust. 4, 539–544 (2012) source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    Implementing effective soil-based GHG mitigation strategies at scale will require capacity to measure and monitor GHG reductions with acceptable accuracy, quantifiable uncertainty and at relatively low cost.

    “However, implementing effective soil-based GHG mitigation strategies at scale will require capacity to measure and monitor GHG reductions with acceptable accuracy, quantifiable uncertainty and at relatively low cost.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Soil C accrual rates decrease over time as stocks approach a new equilibrium, so net CO2 removals are of limited duration, often attenuating after 2-3 decades.

    “However, soil C accrual rates decrease over time as stocks approach a new equilibrium.Thus net CO 2 removals are of limited duration, often attenuating after 2-3 decades 12”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [12] Paustian, K. et al. Agricultural soil as a C sink to offset CO2 emissions. Soil Use Manage. 13, 230–244 (1997) source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Soil C sequestration rates on land maintained in agricultural use are less than for land restoration/conversion, and vary on the order of 0.1 to 1 Mg C ha-1 yr-1, as a function of land use history, soil/climate conditions, and management practices.

    “In general, soil C sequestration rates on land maintained in agricultural use are less than for land restoration/conversion, and vary on the order of 0.1 to 1 Mg C ha -1 yr -1 , as a function of land use history, soil/climate conditions, and the combination of management practices applied 2,14”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [2] Smith, P. et al. Agriculture, Forestry and Other Land Use (AFOLU). In Climate Change 2014: Mitigation of Climate Change. Contribution of Working Group III to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (eds Edenhofer, O. et al.) 813–922 (Cambridge Univ. Press, 2014)

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [14] Davidson, E. A. & Ackerman, I. L. Changes in soil carbon inventories following cultivation of previously untilled soils. Biogeochemistry 20, 161–193 (1993) source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    Land use conversions may conflict with agricultural production and food security objectives, entailing the need for a broad-based accounting of net GHG implications.

    “Land use conversions may, however, conflict with agricultural production and food security objectives, entailing the need for a broad-based accounting of net GHG implications 20”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [20] Knox, S. H. et al. Agricultural peatland restoration: effects of land-use change on greenhouse gas (CO2 and CH4) fluxes in the Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta. Glob. Change Biol. 21, 750–765 (2015) source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Restoring wetlands drained for agricultural use reduces ongoing decomposition losses (which can be as high as 5-20 Mg C ha-1 yr-1) and can restore C sequestration, though methane emissions may increase.

    “Restoring wetlands that have been drained for agricultural use reduces ongoing decomposition losses, which can be as high as 5-20 Mg C ha -1 yr -1 [17], and can also restore C sequestration (Fig. 1), though methane emissions may increase 18,19”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [17] Guo, L. B. & Gifford, R. M. Soil carbon stocks and land use change: a meta analysis. Glob. Change Biol. 8, 345–360 (2002) source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [18] IPCC. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories (eds Eggleston, S., Buendia, L., Miwa, K., Ngara, T. & Tanabe, K. ) Vol. 4, Agriculture, Forestry and Other Land Use (AFOLU) http://www.ipcc-nggip.iges.or.jp/public/2006gl/vol4.html (Institute for Global Environmental Strategies, 2006)

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [19] Smith, P. et al. Greenhouse gas mitigation in agriculture. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. B 363, 789–813 (2008).A comprehensive analysis of agricultural GHG emissions and mitigation potentials including estimated C price impacts on mitigation activities. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Arable soils emit more N2O to the atmosphere than any other anthropogenic source, some 4.2 Tg of a global anthropogenic flux of 8.1 Tg N2O-N yr-1.

    “Arable soils emit more N 2 O to the atmosphere than any other anthropogenic source 2,18 ; some 4.2 Tg of a global anthropogenic flux of 8.1 Tg N 2 O-N yr -1”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [2] Smith, P. et al. Agriculture, Forestry and Other Land Use (AFOLU). In Climate Change 2014: Mitigation of Climate Change. Contribution of Working Group III to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (eds Edenhofer, O. et al.) 813–922 (Cambridge Univ. Press, 2014)

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [18] IPCC. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories (eds Eggleston, S., Buendia, L., Miwa, K., Ngara, T. & Tanabe, K. ) Vol. 4, Agriculture, Forestry and Other Land Use (AFOLU) http://www.ipcc-nggip.iges.or.jp/public/2006gl/vol4.html (Institute for Global Environmental Strategies, 2006)

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    Better N management to reduce N2O emissions would also ameliorate other environmental problems such as nitrate pollution of ground and surface waters caused by excess reactive N in agroecosystems.

    “Better N management to reduce emissions would also ameliorate other environmental problems such as nitrate pollution of ground and surface waters caused by excess reactive N in agroecosystems (Fig. 1).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Nitrification inhibitors such as nitrapyrin and dicyandiamide can reduce N2O fluxes up to 40% in some soils, although other soils show little reduction and more research is needed to understand variable site-level responses.

    “For example, nitrification can be inhibited with commercial additives such as nitrapyrin and dicyandiamide, which slow ammonium oxidation, and field experiments suggest that inhibitors can reduce N 2 O fluxes up to 40% in some soils, although other soils show little reduction and more research is needed to understand variable site-level responses 50”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [50] Robertson, G. P. & Vitousek, P. M. Nitrogen in agriculture: balancing the cost of an essential resource. Annu. Rev. Environ. Resour. 34, 97–125 (2009) source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Although additional nutrient and water inputs to boost yields may increase non-CO2 emissions, the emissions intensity of the system (GHG emissions per unit yield) may decline, providing a global benefit if the yield increase avoids land conversion elsewhere.

    “Although additional nutrient and water inputs to boost yields may increase non-CO 2 emissions 27 , the emissions intensity of the system (GHG emissions per unit yield) may decline, providing a global benefit if the yield increase avoids land conversion for agriculture elsewhere 20,22”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [27] Lemke, R. L., VandenBygaart, A. J., Campbell, C. A., Lafond, G. P. & Grant, B. Crop residue removal and fertilizer N: effects on soil organic carbon in a long-term crop rotation experiment on a Udic Boroll. Agric. Ecosyst. Environ. 135, 42–51 (2010) source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [20] Knox, S. H. et al. Agricultural peatland restoration: effects of land-use change on greenhouse gas (CO2 and CH4) fluxes in the Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta. Glob. Change Biol. 21, 750–765 (2015) source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [22] Kell, D. Large-scale sequestration of atmospheric carbon via plant roots in natural and agricultural ecosystems: why and how. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. B 367, 1589–1597 (2012) source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Increased plant growth in amended soils and the resultant feedbacks to soil C can make up a large proportion of the soil-based GHG balance, and these feedbacks may be especially important for more persistent amendments.

    “Increased plant growth in amended soils and the resultant feedbacks to soil C can make up a large proportion of the soil-based GHG balance 40,47 and these feedbacks may be especially important for more persistent amendments, because of the longer duration of any effects.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [40] Grandy, A. S. & Neff, J. C. Molecular C dynamics downstream: the biochemical decomposition sequence and its impact on soil organic matter structure and function. Sci. Total Environ. 404, 297–307 (2008) source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [47] Whitman, T., Zhu, Z. & Lehmann, J. Carbon mineralizability determines interactive effects on mineralization of pyrogenic organic matter and soil organic carbon. Environ. Sci. Technol. 48, 13727–13734 (2014) source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    On average, about 1% of the N applied to cropland is directly emitted as N2O, which is the basis for estimating emissions using default IPCC methods.

    “On average, about 1% of the N applied to cropland is directly emitted as N 2 O 48 , which is the basis for estimating emissions using default IPCC methods 17”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [48] Whitman, T., Nicholson, C. F., Torres, D. & Lehmann, J. Climate change impact of biochar cook stoves in Western Kenyan farm households: system dynamics model analysis. Environ. Sci. Technol. 45, 3687–3694 (2011) source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [17] Guo, L. B. & Gifford, R. M. Soil carbon stocks and land use change: a meta analysis. Glob. Change Biol. 8, 345–360 (2002) source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Irrigation in water-limited systems and additional fertilizer input in low-yielding, nutrient deficient systems can increase C inputs.

    “Other practices to increase C inputs include irrigation in water-limited systems 18 and additional fertilizer input to increase productivity in low-yielding, nutrient deficient systems (Fig. 1) 26”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [18] IPCC. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories (eds Eggleston, S., Buendia, L., Miwa, K., Ngara, T. & Tanabe, K. ) Vol. 4, Agriculture, Forestry and Other Land Use (AFOLU) http://www.ipcc-nggip.iges.or.jp/public/2006gl/vol4.html (Institute for Global Environmental Strategies, 2006)

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [26] Tonitto, C., David, M. B. & Drinkwater, L. E. Replacing bare fallows with cover crops in fertilizer-intensive cropping systems: a meta-analysis of crop yield and N dynamics. Agric. Ecosyst. Environ. 112, 58–72 (2006) source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Practices that increase C inputs include improved varieties or species with greater root mass, crop rotations that provide greater C inputs, more residue retention, and cover crops during fallow periods.

    “Practices that increase C inputs include (i) improved varieties or species with greater root mass to deposit C in deeper layers where turnover is slower 21 , (ii) adopting crop rotations that provide greater C inputs 22 , (iii) more residue retention 23 , and (iv) cover crops during fallow periods to provide year-round C inputs (Fig. 1).22,24”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [21] Foley, J. et al. Solutions for a cultivated planet. Nature 478, 337–342 (2011) source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [22] Kell, D. Large-scale sequestration of atmospheric carbon via plant roots in natural and agricultural ecosystems: why and how. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. B 367, 1589–1597 (2012) source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [23] Burney, J. A. et al. Greenhouse gas mitigation by agricultural intensification. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 107, 12052–12057 (2010) source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Reducing N2O flux from arable soils represents a significant mitigation opportunity, particularly since N2O is often the major source of radiative forcing in intensively managed cropland.

    “Reducing this flux represents a significant mitigation opportunity, particularly since N 2 O is often the major source of radiative forcing in intensively managed cropland.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Key knowledge gaps affecting understanding of soil C sequestration include differential temperature sensitivity of C turnover among SOM fractions, interactions among organic matter chemistry, mineral surface interactions and C saturation, and subsoil (>30 cm) SOM accretion, turnover and stabilization.

    “Key knowledge gaps that affect our understanding of soil C sequestration processes and management options to implement them include questions about the differential temperature sensitivity of C turnover among SOM fractions 33 , interactions among organic matter chemistry, mineral surface interactions and C saturation [34][35][36] , and subsoil (> 30 cm) SOM accretion, turnover and stabilization 37”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 5 sources checked
    • cites [33] Scholes, M. J. & Scholes, R. J. Dust unto dust. Science 342, 565–566 (2013) source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [34] Conant, R. T. et al. Temperature and soil organic matter decomposition rates—synthesis of current knowledge and a way forward. Glob. Change Biol. 17, 3392–3404 (2011) source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [35] Cotrufo, M. F., Wallenstein, M., Boot, C. M., Denef, K. & Paul, E. A. The Microbial Efficiency-Matrix Stabilization (MEMS) framework integrates plant litter decomposition with soil organic matter stabilization: do labile plant inputs form stable soil organic matter? Glob. Change Biol. 19, 988–995 (2013) source

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    • cites [36] Schmidt, M. W. I. et al. Persistence of soil organic matter as an ecosystem property. Nature 478, 49–56 (2011) source

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    • cites [37] Stewart, C. E., Plant, A. F., Paustian, K., Conant, R. & Six, J. Soil carbon saturation: linking concept and measurable carbon pools. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 72, 379–392 (2008) source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Mineralization of existing soil C in response to amendments (priming) has often been observed immediately following biochar addition, but priming usually declines, sometimes becoming negative, over time.

    “Mineralization of existing soil C in response to amendments (often referred to as 'priming' 44 ) has often been observed immediately following biochar addition, but priming usually declines, sometimes becoming negative (i.e., inhibiting in situ soil C decomposition), over time 45,46”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [44] DeLonge, M. S., Ryals, R. & Silver, W. L. A lifecycle model to evaluate carbon sequestration potential and greenhouse gas dynamics of managed grasslands. Ecosystems 16, 962–979 (2013) source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [45] Kuzyakov, Y. Priming effects: interactions between living and dead organic matter. Soil Biol. Biochem. 42, 1363–1371 (2010) source

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    • cites [46] Zimmerman, A., Gao, B. & Ahn, M. Y. Positive and negative mineralization priming effects among a variety of biochar-amended soils. Soil Biol. Biochem. 43, 1169–1179 (2011) source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Composts typically have mean residence times several-fold greater than un-composted organic matter, and biochar mineralizes 10-100 times slower than uncharred biomass.

    “Both compost and biochar are more slowly decomposed compared to fresh plant residues, with composts typically having mean residence times several-fold greater than un-composted organic matter 40 , and biochar mineralizes 10-100 times slower than uncharred biomass 41”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [40] Grandy, A. S. & Neff, J. C. Molecular C dynamics downstream: the biochemical decomposition sequence and its impact on soil organic matter structure and function. Sci. Total Environ. 404, 297–307 (2008) source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [41] Ryals, R., Hartman, M. D., Parton, W. J., DeLonge, M. & Silver, W. L. Long-term climate change mitigation potential with organic matter management on grasslands. Ecol. Appl. 25, 531–545 (2015).Field experiments and modelling were used to show reductions in net GHG emissions from grazed annual grasslands using composted green waste applications. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisereasoning

    Addition of plant-derived C from external sources such as composts or biochar can increase soil C stocks and may result in net CO2 removals from the atmosphere.

    “Addition of plant-derived C from external (i.e., offsite) sources such as composts or biochar can increase soil C stocks, and may result in net CO 2 removals from the atmosphere (Fig. 1).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    A change from annual to perennial crops typically increases belowground C inputs and reduces soil disturbance, leading to C sequestration.

    “A change from annual to perennial crops typically increases belowground C inputs (and soil disturbance is reduced), leading to C sequestration 15”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [15] Ogle, S. M., Breidt, F. J. & Paustian, K. Agricultural management impacts on soil organic carbon storage under moist and dry climatic conditions of temperate and tropical regions. Biogeochemistry 72, 87–121 (2005) source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Recent evidence suggests that the 1% value is too high for crops that are under-fertilized and too low for crops that are fertilized liberally.

    “However, recent evidence suggests that this value is too high for crops that are under-fertilized and too low for crops that are fertilized liberally 27”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [27] Lemke, R. L., VandenBygaart, A. J., Campbell, C. A., Lafond, G. P. & Grant, B. Crop residue removal and fertilizer N: effects on soil organic carbon in a long-term crop rotation experiment on a Udic Boroll. Agric. Ecosyst. Environ. 135, 42–51 (2010) source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Remote sensing is poorly-suited for monitoring crop type, fertilizer, residue and water management, and organic matter amendments; for such practices the best source of information are the land managers themselves.

    “In contrast to projects involving major land cover changes, where remote sensing can provide much of the activity monitoring (e.g., retention of forested land over time), such options are poorly-suited for monitoring crop type, fertilizer, residue and water management, and organic matter amendments 73 ; for such practices the best source of information are the land managers themselves (Fig. 3).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [73] Swallow, B. M. & Goddard, T. W. Value chains for bio-carbon sequestration services: lessons from contrasting cases in Canada, Kenya and Mozambique. Land Use Policy 31, 81–89 (2013) source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    With global rice production projected to expand by ~40% between 2000-2023, the potential for further GHG mitigation via soil management appears large, although the global distribution and diverse nature of rice production systems present challenges to developing effective mitigation strategies.

    “With global rice production projected to expand by ~40% between 2000-2023 [62], the potential for further GHG mitigation via soil management appears large, although the global distribution and diverse nature of rice production systems -including irrigated, rain-fed and deepwaterpresent challenges to developing effective mitigation strategies.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [62] Liu, Y. et al. Carbon dioxide flux from rice paddy soils in central China: effects of intermittent flooding and draining cycles. PLoS ONE 8, e56562 (2013) source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given

    A key strength is that a variety of practices can often be implemented on the same land area, to leverage synergies, while avoiding offsetting effects for different gases.

    “A key strength is that a variety of practices can often be implemented on the same land area, to leverage synergies, while avoiding offsetting effects for different gases (Fig. 1).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Discounting payments based on the level of uncertainty is likely to be part of programs with financial incentives, such as cap-and-trade.

    “While MRV systems place different levels of importance on uncertainty depending on program type (see Box 1) 78 , discounting payments based on the level of uncertainty is likely to be part of programs with financial incentives, such as cap-and-trade.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [78] Smith, P. et al. Towards an integrated global framework to assess the impacts of land use and management change on soil carbon: current capability and future vision. Glob. Change Biol. 18, 2089–2101 (2012) source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The restoration of soil CH4 uptake following agricultural conversion appears related to methanotroph community diversity, about which we know too little.

    “The restoration of soil CH 4 uptake following agricultural conversion, for example, appears related to methanotroph community diversity 64 , about which we know too little.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [64] van Groenigen, K. J., van Kessel, C. & Hungate, B. A. Increased greenhouse-gas intensity of rice production under future atmospheric conditions. Nature Clim. Change 3, 288–291 (2012) source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Premisenone given

    Rates of soil GHG mitigation on an individual land parcel are often low, but vast areas of land are devoted to agriculture globally, and the implementers number in the billions.

    “Rates on an individual land parcel are often low, but vast areas of land are devoted to agriculture globally, and the implementers of mitigation practices -the people using the land -number in the billions.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The implementers of mitigation practices—the people using the land—number in the billions.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    In flooded rice, alterations in drainage regimes and organic residue incorporation could reduce emissions by ~25% or 7.6 Tg CH4 yr-1 globally, although cycles of wetting and drying may also enhance N2O production and soil C mineralisation, thereby reducing the net mitigation effect.

    “In flooded rice, alterations in drainage regimes and organic residue incorporation could reduce emissions by ~ 25% or 7.6 Tg CH 4 yr -1 globally 18 , although cycles of wetting and drying of soils may also enhance N 2 O production 60 and soil C mineralisation 61 , thereby reducing the net mitigation effect.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [18] IPCC. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories (eds Eggleston, S., Buendia, L., Miwa, K., Ngara, T. & Tanabe, K. ) Vol. 4, Agriculture, Forestry and Other Land Use (AFOLU) http://www.ipcc-nggip.iges.or.jp/public/2006gl/vol4.html (Institute for Global Environmental Strategies, 2006)

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [60] Suwanwaree, P. & Robertson, G. P. Methane oxidation in forest, successional, and no-till agricultural ecosystems: effects of nitrogen and soil disturbance. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 69, 1722–1729 (2005) source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [61] Linquist, B. A. et al. Reducing greenhouse gas emissions, water use, and grain arsenic levels in rice systems. Glob. Change Biol. 21, 407–417 (2015) source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    For longer-term (>20 year) projections, climate change and land-atmosphere interactions become increasingly important, with changes in N inputs, temperature, precipitation and atmospheric CO2 concentration all likely to affect net CH4 fluxes from soils.

    “For longer-term (>20 year) projections, climate change and land-atmosphere interactions become increasingly important, with changes in N inputs, temperature, precipitation and atmospheric CO 2 concentration all likely to affect net CH 4 fluxes from soils 63”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [63] Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD)–Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations. Agricultural Outlook 2015–2024. http://stats.oecd.org (worldwide rice production for 2000 to 2024 period, accessed March 2016)

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Well-aerated soils act as sinks for CH4 (estimated at ~30 Tg yr-1) via CH4 oxidation, with the bulk of this net sink in unmanaged upland and forest soils.

    “In contrast, well-aerated soils act as sinks for CH 4 (estimated at ~ 30 Tg yr -1 ) from the atmosphere via CH 4 oxidation, the bulk of this net sink being in unmanaged upland and forest soils 57”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [57] Conrad, R. The global methane cycle: recent advances in understanding the microbial processes involved. Environ. Microbiol. Rep. 1, 285–292 (2009) source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The Cool Farm Tool and COMET-Farm tool provide web-based interfaces designed for non-specialists to enter land management information; Cool Farm utilizes empirical emission factor-type models, while COMET-Farm incorporates both empirical and process-based models.

    “Examples of this approach are the Cool Farm Tool 71 , being used by farmers participating in low C supply chain management, and the COMET-Farm tool, which allows farmers to compute full farm-scale GHG budgets, for support of government-sponsored conservation initiatives and participation in mitigation projects 74 .Both tools provide web-based interfaces designed for non-specialists to enter land”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [71] Paustian, K., Ogle, S. M. & Conant, R. T. In Handbook of Climate Change and Agroecosystems: Impact, Adaptation and Mitigation (eds Hillel, D. & Rosenzweig, C. ) 307–341 (Imperial College Press, 2011.) source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [74] National Academy of Sciences. Verifying Greenhouse Gas Emissions: Methods to Support International Climate Agreements http://www.nap.edu/download.php?record_id=12883 (eds Pacala, S. et al.) 1–110 (National Academies Press, 2010)

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The abatement of CH4 generation in rice rhizospheres is related to C compounds exuded by roots, such that CH4 mitigation might be achieved through further rice breeding and genetics.

    “Likewise the abatement of CH 4 generation in rice rhizospheres is related to C compounds exuded by roots, such that CH 4 mitigation might be achieved through further rice breeding and genetics 65”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [65] Levine, U. et al. Agriculture’s impact on microbial diversity and associated fluxes of carbon dioxide and methane. ISME J. 5, 1683–1691 (2011) source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    There are relatively fewer projects targeting GHG mitigation on existing agricultural lands, and early pilot-phase N2O and CH4 reduction projects are only now being developed.

    “There are relatively fewer projects targeting GHG mitigation on existing agricultural lands, involving a broader suite of soil management practices, and early pilot-phase N 2 O and CH 4 reduction projects are only now being developed 5,52”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [5] Verified Carbon Standard (VCS) http://www.v-c-s.org/ (accessed May 2015)

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [52] Aguilera, E., Lassaletta, L., Sanz Cobeña, A., Garnier, J. & Vallejo Garcia, A. The potential of organic fertilizers and water management to reduce N2O emissions in Mediterranean climate cropping systems. Agric. Ecosyst. Environ. 164, 32–52 (2013) source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisenone given

    MRV systems are a key element in a climate smart agricultural program.

    “Monitoring, reporting and verification (MRV) systems are a key element in a climate smart agricultural program.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Key determinants of soil CH4 fluxes include aeration, substrate availability, temperature and N inputs; therefore, soil management can radically alter CH4 fluxes.

    “Key determinants of soil CH 4 fluxes include aeration, substrate availability, temperature and N inputs 58 ; therefore, soil management can radically alter CH 4 fluxes.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [58] Le Mer, J. & Roger, P. Production, oxidation, emission and consumption of methane by soils. Eur. J. Soil Biol. 37, 25–50 (2001) source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    How much mitigation is achievable will depend heavily on the effectiveness of implementation strategies and socioeconomic and policy constraints.

    “How much is achievable will depend heavily on the effectiveness of implementation strategies and socioeconomic and policy constraints.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisereasoning

    Direct measurement of fluxes requires specialized personnel and equipment, normally limited to research environments, and hence is not feasible for most mitigation projects.

    “Direct measurement of fluxes requires specialized personnel and equipment, normally limited to research environments, and hence not feasible for most mitigation projects.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Direct measurement of fluxes requires specialized personnel and equipment, normally limited to research environments.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Other market-linked strategies, such as 'green labeling' systems, will require rigorous yet easy to use GHG quantification tools.

    “Other market-linked strategies, such as 'green labeling' systems for agricultural products, will also require rigorous yet easy to use GHG quantification tools, enabling agricultural producers to meet standards set by product distributors and accepted by consumers 6,71”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [6] American Carbon Registry (ACR) http://americancarbonregistry.org/ (accessed May 2015)

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [71] Paustian, K., Ogle, S. M. & Conant, R. T. In Handbook of Climate Change and Agroecosystems: Impact, Adaptation and Mitigation (eds Hillel, D. & Rosenzweig, C. ) 307–341 (Imperial College Press, 2011.) source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Limited availability of field-scale CH4 flux data means a greater reliance on regionally-averaged emission factors and extrapolation from mesocosm and laboratory incubations, and thus less site and condition specificity in modelling fluxes.

    “Limited availability of field-scale CH 4 flux data means a greater reliance on regionally-averaged emission factors and extrapolation from mesocosm and laboratory incubations 17 , and thus less site and condition specificity in modelling fluxes.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [17] Guo, L. B. & Gifford, R. M. Soil carbon stocks and land use change: a meta analysis. Glob. Change Biol. 8, 345–360 (2002) source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisereasoning

    Offset projects participating in cap-and-trade markets require the most rigorous methods.

    “Those requiring the most rigorous methods involve offset projects participating in cap-and-trade markets, in which land managers are directly compensated for achieving emission reductions.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Estimates for biochar application from Woolf et al. represent a technical potential only, but based on a full life cycle analysis applicable over a 100 year time span.

    “Estimates for biochar application from Woolf et al. 66 represent a technical potential only, but based on a full life cycle analysis applicable over a 100 year time span.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [66] Su, J. et al. Expression of barley SUSIBA2 transcription factor yields high-starch low-methane rice. Nature 523, 602–606 (2015) source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Both compliance and voluntary markets can function as C&T systems.

    “Both compliance and voluntary markets can function as C&T systems 100 .”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [100] Decision No 529/2013/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council of 21 May 2013 on accounting rules on greenhouse gas emissions and removals resulting from activities relating to land use, land-use change and forestry and on information concerning actions relating to those activities. http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=OJ:JOL_2013_165_R_0080_01 (EUR-Lex, Access to European Union Law, accessed May 2015)

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Reducing and managing uncertainties are key to both improved predictive models and decision support tools and the design of effective policies that promote soil-based GHG mitigation.

    “Reducing and managing uncertainties are key to both improved predictive models and decisionsupport tools and the design of effective policies that promote soil-based GHG mitigation.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    Low cost options in one region may be a higher cost/less feasible option in another region.

    “However, low cost options in one region may be a higher cost/less feasible option in another region.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Aggregation of many farms into larger projects will reduce uncertainties, which could be a viable approach for managing uncertainty and reducing discounting of incentive payments.

    “Aggregation of many farms into larger projects will reduce uncertainties, which could be a viable approach for managing uncertainty and reducing discounting of incentive payments.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    High resolution soil maps exist in most developed countries and increasingly in developing countries.

    “igh resolution soil maps exist in most developed countries (and increasingly in developing countries 93 )”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [93] Dhawale, N. M. et al. Proximal soil sensing of soil texture and organic matter with a prototype portable mid-infrared spectrometer. Eur. J. Soil Sci. 66, 661–669 (2015) source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

    Interpretationreasoning

    Targeted basic research on soil processes, expanding measurement/monitoring networks and further developing global geospatial soils data can improve predictive models and reduce uncertainties.

    “Targeted basic research on soil processes (a few examples of priority areas shown here), expanding measurement/monitoring networks and further developing global geospatial soils data can improve predictive models and reduce uncertainties.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Soil monitoring networks deployed at national or regional scales could produce independent data for evaluating model-based assessments of soil C stock changes and GHG emissions and for model bias adjustment.

    “Although independent data may be less favored in terms of costs relative to alternatives, such as expert judgement 78 , soil monitoring networks deployed at national or regional scales could produce independent data for evaluating model-based assessments of soil C stock changes and GHG emissions 79 and for model bias adjustment, using empirically-based methods 80”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [79] Bellassen, V. et al. Monitoring, reporting and verifying emissions in the climate economy. Nature Clim. Change 5, 319–328 (2015) source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [80] van Wesemael, B. et al. How can soil monitoring networks be used to improve predictions of organic carbon pool dynamics and CO2 fluxes in agricultural soils? Plant Soil 338, 247–259 (2011) source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

    Interpretationreasoning

    High quality data generated from consistent measurement protocols is critical for evaluating and improving models.

    “High quality data generated from consistent measurement protocols is critical for evaluating and improving models.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given

    Atmospheric observations and satellite imagery may become a standard for verifying regional inventories in the future, but the methods need further testing in the near term before deploying operational systems.

    “While atmospheric observations and satellite imagery may become a standard for verifying regional inventories in the future, the methods need further testing in the near term before deploying operational systems.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    Large geospatial databases of soil biophysical properties and climate variables are critical to accurately quantify soil processes across the landscape.

    “Large geospatial databases of soil biophysical properties and climate variables are critical to accurately quantify soil processes across the landscape (Fig. 3).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
55 of 55

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    N2O is produced in soils by microbial activity, mainly nitrification and denitrification, which occur readily when stimulated by abundant N that cycles rapidly in virtually all agroecosystems.

    “N 2 O is produced in soils by microbial activity -mainly nitrification and denitrification -which occur readily when stimulated by the abundant N that cycles rapidly in virtually all agroecosystems.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    N2O has no significant terrestrial sink.

    “Since N 2 O has no significant terrestrial sink, abatement is best achieved by attenuating known sources of N 2 O emissions”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Fertilized crops typically take up less than 50% of the N applied; the remainder is available for loss.

    “Fertilized crops typically take up less than 50% of the N applied; the remainder is available for loss.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The implementers of mitigation practices—the people using the land—number in the billions.

    “the implementers of mitigation practices -the people using the land -number in the billions”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Direct measurement of fluxes requires specialized personnel and equipment, normally limited to research environments.

    “Direct measurement of fluxes requires specialized personnel and equipment, normally limited to research environments, and hence not feasible for most mitigation projects.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    A variety of soil management practices and technologies reduce emissions and promote C sequestration, most of which also provide environmental co-benefits.

    “For soils, a variety of management practices and technologies are known to reduce emissions and promote C sequestration, most of which also provide environmental co-benefits.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Global estimates of the potential impact of enhanced root phenotypes for crops have not been published.

    “Although global estimates of the potential impact of enhanced root phenotypes for crops have not been published”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Inclusion of agricultural activities as offset providers has been growing, particularly within voluntary markets.

    “Inclusion of agricultural activities as offset providers has been growing, particularly within voluntary markets.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Direct regulatory measures to reduce soil GHGs at the entity scale are likely politically unfeasible and costly.

    “Direct regulatory measures to reduce soil GHGs at the entity scale are likely politically unfeasible and costly.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Taxation of N fertilizer is already used in parts of the US and Europe to reduce nitrate pollution.

    “Taxation of N fertilizer, already used in parts of the US and Europe to reduce nitrate pollution”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Targeted government payments/subsidies for implementing GHG-reducing practices is emerging as a policy alternative.

    “Targeted government payments/subsidies for implementing GHG-reducing practices is emerging as a policy alternative.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    For degraded, marginal lands, the most productive mitigation option is conversion to perennial vegetation either left unmanaged or sustainably harvested to offset fossil energy use (cellulosic biofuels).

    “For degraded, marginal lands (top of diagram) the most productive mitigation option is conversion to perennial vegetation either left unmanaged or sustainably harvested to offset fossil energy use (cellulosic biofuels).”
12 of 12

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.

  • Woolf et al. are cited under the wrong reference number

    Minor

    The text attributes the biochar estimate to Woolf et al. as reference 66, but reference 66 is a paper by Lynch and Wojciechowski. Woolf et al. appear as reference 65.

  • Kyoto Protocol claim points to an unrelated reference

    Minor

    The cited reference 98 describes supply-chain initiatives, not the stated decision about EU commitments under the Kyoto Protocol.

2 of 2

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

Research works printed but not linked: 1

  1. IPCC. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories (eds Eggleston, S., Buendia, L., Miwa, K., Ngara, T. & Tanabe, K. ) Vol. 4, Agriculture, Forestry and Other Land Use (AFOLU) http://www.ipcc-nggip.iges.or.jp/public/2006gl/vol4.html (Institute for Global Environmental Strategies, 2006)

Cited by

Sorted by citations

Related

Authors
Paustian, K., Lehmann, J., Ogle, S., Reay, D., Robertson, G. P., & Smith, P.
Affiliations
  • Colorado State University (US)
  • Cornell University (US)
  • University of Edinburgh (GB)
  • Michigan State University (US)
  • University of Aberdeen (GB)
Corresponding author
Paustian, Keith
ORCID
Venue
Nature
Publisher
Springer Science and Business Media LLC
Published
2016-04
Volume
532
Issue
7597
Pages
49-57
ISSN
  • 0028-0836 (ISSN-L)
  • 1476-4687
DOI
10.1038/nature17174
OpenAlex
W2328487243
Semantic Scholar
acb819ac0b45263a2732ee151c3cf5c5fb1028b9
Cited by
2,213
References
94
Citations by year
2026: 274 · 2025: 288 · 2024: 254 · 2023: 250 · 2022: 260 · 2021: 239 · 2020: 196 · 2019: 169 · 2018: 144 · 2017: 109 · 2016: 29
FWCI
175.99
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
www.springer.com/tdm (tdm)
Locations
  • Nature (publishedVersion)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
  • Aberdeen University Research Archive (Aberdeen University) (submittedVersion)
  • Edinburgh Research Explorer (University of Edinburgh) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
  • RePEc: Research Papers in Economics (submittedVersion)
Funders
Natural Environment Research Council (NE/M021327/1, NE/M016900/1)
Topics
  • Life Sciences › Agricultural and Biological Sciences › Soil Science › Soil Carbon and Nitrogen Dynamics
  • Life Sciences › Agricultural and Biological Sciences › Soil Science › Soil erosion and sediment transport
  • Life Sciences › Agricultural and Biological Sciences › Soil Science › Soil Management and Crop Yield
Keywords
soil carbon sequestration, agricultural soils, climate change mitigation, soil greenhouse gas emissions, soil management
MeSH terms
Agriculture, Carbon Dioxide, Methane, Nitrous Oxide, Research, Soil, Greenhouse Effect, Uncertainty, Internationality, Carbon Sequestration

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Claims read by deepseek-v4.1-flash under definition version 3 (extract-v3) on 2026-10-10.

Classified by jev-1.13-20260917 (gold-guideline-v0.2) on 2026-10-10.

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