Sarcopenic obesity in older adults: a clinical overview
Open accessAbstract
Sarcopenic obesity is characterized by a concurrent decline in muscle mass and function, along with increased adipose tissue. Sarcopenic obesity is a growing concern in older adults owing to significant health consequences, including implications for mortality, comorbidities and risk of developing geriatric syndromes. A 2022 consensus statement established a new definition and diagnostic criteria for sarcopenic obesity. The pathophysiology of this condition involves a complex interplay between muscle, adipose tissue, hormonal changes, inflammation, oxidative stress and lifestyle factors, among others. Sarcopenic obesity is treated with a range of management approaches, such as lifestyle interventions, exercise, nutrition and medical therapies. Emerging therapies that were developed for treating other conditions may be relevant to sarcopenic obesity, including novel pharmacological agents and personalized approaches such as precision medicine. In this Review, we synthesize the current knowledge of the clinical importance of sarcopenic obesity, its assessment and diagnosis, along with current and emerging management strategies.
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- Premisecitation
The pathophysiology of sarcopenic obesity involves complex interactions among muscle, adipose tissue, hormonal changes, inflammation, oxidative stress, and lifestyle factors.
“The pathophysiology of this condition involves a complex interplay between muscle, adipose tissue, hormonal changes, inflammation, oxidative stress and lifestyle factors, among others.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 6 sources checked- cites [47] JafariNasabian, P., Inglis, J. E., Reilly, W., Kelly, O. J. & Ilich, J. Z. Aging human body: changes in bone, muscle and body fat with consequent changes in nutrient intake. J. Endocrinol. 234, R37–R51 (2017). source
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- Premisecitation
Sarcopenic obesity is a growing concern in older adults because of significant health consequences, including mortality, comorbidities, and risk of geriatric syndromes.
“Sarcopenic obesity is a growing concern in older adults owing to significant health consequences, including implications for mortality, comorbidities and risk of developing geriatric syndromes.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites 21–46
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- Premisecitation
Hormonal shifts associated with ageing and obesity strongly influence the pathophysiology of sarcopenic obesity.
“Hormonal shifts associated with ageing and obesity strongly influence the pathophysiology of sarcopenic obesity48.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [48] Sakuma, K. & Yamaguchi, A. Sarcopenic obesity and endocrinal adaptation with age. Int. J. Endocrinol. 2013, 204164 (2013). source
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- Premisecitation
Ageing increases infiltration of skeletal muscle by adipose tissue (myosteatosis) in multiple depots, including intermuscular adipose tissue and intramyocellular lipids.
“With ageing, there is an increase in infiltration of skeletal muscle by adipose tissue (termed myosteatosis) within multiple different adipose depots, including intermuscular adipose tissue and intramyocellular lipids55.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [55] Correa-de-Araujo, R. et al. Myosteatosis in the context of skeletal muscle function deficit: an Interdisciplinary Workshop at the National Institute on Aging. Front. Physiol. 11, 963 (2020). This workshop discusses the impact of myosteatosis on skeletal muscle function during aging, detailing its connection to metabolic disease, evaluation techniques and prospective interventions, and emphasizing the importance of innovative research domains and interdisciplinary synergy. source
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Ageing leads to a gradual decline in the proportion of fast-twitch (type II) muscle fibres, which may contribute to decreased muscle strength and power.
“The ageing process leads to a gradual decline in the proportion of fast-twitch (type II) muscle fibres, which may contribute to decreased muscle strength and power56.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [56] Larsson, L. et al. Sarcopenia: aging-related loss of muscle mass and function. Physiol. Rev. 99, 427–511 (2019). source
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- Premisecitation
Long-term adipose accumulation combined with ageing-related oxidative stress and chronic inflammation can progressively induce muscle loss and adipose gain, leading to sarcopenic obesity.
“Long-term accumulation of adipose tissue, when paired with the secondary consequences of triggers such as ageing, including oxidative stress and chronic inflammation, among others, may progressively induce muscle loss and gain in adipose tissue, leading to sarcopenic obesity15.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [15] Baumgartner, R. N. & Waters, D. L. in Principles and Practice of Geriatric Medicine (eds Pathy, M. S. J., Sinclair, A. J. & Morley, J. E.) 909–933 (Wiley, 2005). source
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- Interpretationcitation
A vicious cycle of muscle loss and adipose tissue gain can cause sarcopenic obesity.
“Ultimately, a vicious cycle of muscle loss and adipose tissue gain can cause sarcopenic obesity15.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [15] Baumgartner, R. N. & Waters, D. L. in Principles and Practice of Geriatric Medicine (eds Pathy, M. S. J., Sinclair, A. J. & Morley, J. E.) 909–933 (Wiley, 2005). source
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Neuromuscular function impairment can contribute to sarcopenia via reduced active motor units, altered neuromuscular junction activity, reduced activation and innervation of muscle fibres, and impaired excitation-contraction coupling.
“Neuromuscular function impairment could also contribute to the development of sarcopenia via reduction in the number of active motor units, altered neuromuscular junction activity, reduced activation and innervation of muscle fibres, and impaired excitation–contraction coupling49.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [49] Moreira-Pais, A., Ferreira, R., Oliveira, P. A. & Duarte, J. A. A neuromuscular perspective of sarcopenia pathogenesis: deciphering the signaling pathways involved. Geroscience 44, 1199–1213 (2022). source
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- Premisenone given
Sarcopenic obesity is managed with lifestyle interventions, exercise, nutrition, and medical therapies.
“Sarcopenic obesity is treated with a range of management approaches, such as lifestyle interventions, exercise, nutrition and medical therapies.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 5 sources checked- cites [124] Trouwborst, I. et al. Exercise and nutrition strategies to counteract sarcopenic obesity. Nutrients 10, 605 (2018). source
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- cites [125] Petroni, M. L. et al. Prevention and treatment of sarcopenic obesity in women. Nutrients 11, 1302 (2019). source
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- cites [126] Schoufour, J. D. et al. The relevance of diet, physical activity, exercise, and persuasive technology in the prevention and treatment of sarcopenic obesity in older adults. Front. Nutr. 8, 661449 (2021). source
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- cites [127] Batsis, J. A. & Villareal, D. T. Sarcopenic obesity in older adults: aetiology, epidemiology and treatment strategies. Nat. Rev. Endocrinol. 14, 513–537 (2018). This comprehensive review addresses the mechanisms, definitions and diagnostic approaches for sarcopenic obesity in older adults, as well as treatments such as dietary modifications, exercise and emerging therapeutic interventions, focusing on their clinical implications for this high-risk demographic group. source
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- cites [128] Bouchonville, M. F. & Villareal, D. T. Sarcopenic obesity: how do we treat it? Curr. Opin. Endocrinol. Diabetes Obes. 20, 412–419 (2013). source
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- Premisecitation
In sarcopenic obesity, this adaptive process can fail, leading to adipose accumulation without corresponding muscle mass and function increase.
“However, in individuals with sarcopenic obesity, this adaptive physiological process can falter, leading to excessive adipose tissue accumulation (‘load’) without a corresponding increase in muscle mass and functionality (‘capacity’)12,13.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites [12] Siervo, M. et al. Body composition indices of a load-capacity model: gender- and BMI-specific reference curves. Public. Health Nutr. 18, 1245–1254 (2015). source
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- cites [13] Wells, J. C. Historical cohort studies and the early origins of disease hypothesis: making sense of the evidence. Proc. Nutr. Soc. 68, 179–188 (2009). source
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- Premisecitation
Muscle mass decreases by about 3-8% per decade after age 30, primarily due to decrease in size and number of muscle fibres.
“Muscle mass is estimated to decrease by about 3–8% per decade after the age of 30 years, primarily due to a decrease in the size and number of muscle fibres54.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [54] Volpi, E., Nazemi, R. & Fujita, S. Muscle tissue changes with aging. Curr. Opin. Clin. Nutr. Metab. Care 7, 405–410 (2004). source
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- Premisecitation
Reduced insulin signalling or insulin resistance can impair muscle protein metabolism, leading to muscle wasting and sarcopenia.
“Reduced insulin signalling or insulin resistance can impair muscle protein metabolism, leading to muscle wasting and sarcopenia58.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [58] Shou, J., Chen, P. J. & Xiao, W. H. Mechanism of increased risk of insulin resistance in aging skeletal muscle. Diabetol. Metab. Syndr. 12, 14 (2020). source
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- Interpretationreasoning
A substantial increase in sarcopenic obesity prevalence is expected in the next decade due to rising obesity and sedentary lifestyles in ageing populations.
“Given the concomitant rising rates of obesity and sedentary lifestyles in ageing populations, we can expect a substantial surge in the prevalence of this syndrome in the next decade.”
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The prevalence of sarcopenic obesity in older adults varies substantially depending on diagnostic criteria.
“The prevalence of sarcopenic obesity in older adults varies substantially, depending on which diagnostic criteria are applied5.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [5] Gao, Q. et al. Global prevalence of sarcopenic obesity in older adults: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Clin. Nutr. 40, 4633–4641 (2021). source
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- Premisecitation
The clinical importance of sarcopenic obesity arises from the cumulative impact of excess adiposity and the functional and systemic roles of skeletal muscle.
“The clinical importance of sarcopenic obesity in older adults arises from the cumulative impact of excess adiposity and the functional and systemic roles of skeletal muscle16.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [16] Cruz-Jentoft, A. J., Gonzalez, M. C. & Prado, C. M. Sarcopenia ≠ low muscle mass. Eur. Geriatr. Med. 14, 225–228 (2023). source
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- Premisecitation
Leucine supplementation (2.0-2.5 g per day) is associated with increased muscle protein synthesis in older adults, independently of other amino acids.
“Supplementation with leucine (2.0–2.5 g per day) is associated with increased muscle protein synthesis in older adults, independently of ingestion of other amino acids181.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [181] Devries, M. C. et al. Protein leucine content is a determinant of shorter- and longer-term muscle protein synthetic responses at rest and following resistance exercise in healthy older women: a randomized, controlled trial. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 107, 217–226 (2018). source
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Providing a high proportion of essential amino acids may counteract the first-pass extraction by splanchnic tissues that reduces amino acid availability for muscle protein synthesis, particularly in older subjects with high BMI.
“Providing (a high proportion of) essential amino acids may counteract the first-pass extraction effect by splanchnic tissues178 (mainly gut and liver) that reduces amino acid availability (particularly in older subjects with high BMI) for muscle protein synthesis.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [178] Boirie, Y., Gachon, P. & Beaufrère, B. Splanchnic and whole-body leucine kinetics in young and elderly men. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 65, 489–495 (1997). source
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Protein intake below approximately 25-30 g per meal may result in suboptimal muscle protein synthesis.
“Below this amount, muscle protein synthesis may be suboptimal, while no substantial advantages in the anabolic response have been found with an intake above 30 g176,177.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites [176] Agergaard, J. et al. Effect of light-load resistance exercise on postprandial amino acid transporter expression in elderly men. Physiol. Rep. 5, e13444 (2017). source
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- cites [177] Arnal, M. A. et al. Protein pulse feeding improves protein retention in elderly women. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 69, 1202–1208 (1999). source
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- Premisecitation
Evidence is lacking on whether manipulating macronutrient composition versus conventional calorie restriction affects weight loss and body composition, especially in sarcopenic obesity.
“To date, evidence is lacking about the effects of macronutrient manipulation168 (that is, fat versus carbohydrate restriction) compared with conventional calorie restriction (that is, total calorie intake) in terms of weight loss and effects on body composition, particularly on the sarcopenic obesity phenotype.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [168] Poggiogalle, E., Migliaccio, S., Lenzi, A. & Donini, L. M. Treatment of body composition changes in obese and overweight older adults: insight into the phenotype of sarcopenic obesity. Endocrine 47, 699–716 (2014). source
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- Premisecitation
No substantial advantage in the anabolic response has been found with protein intake above 30 g per meal.
“Below this amount, muscle protein synthesis may be suboptimal, while no substantial advantages in the anabolic response have been found with an intake above 30 g176,177.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites [176] Agergaard, J. et al. Effect of light-load resistance exercise on postprandial amino acid transporter expression in elderly men. Physiol. Rep. 5, e13444 (2017). source
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- cites [177] Arnal, M. A. et al. Protein pulse feeding improves protein retention in elderly women. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 69, 1202–1208 (1999). source
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- Premisecitation
Physical inactivity further impairs insulin sensitivity, exacerbating obesity-related muscle loss.
“Physical inactivity further impairs insulin sensitivity, exacerbating obesity-related muscle loss88.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [88] Yaribeygi, H., Maleki, M., Sathyapalan, T., Jamialahmadi, T. & Sahebkar, A. Pathophysiology of physical inactivity-dependent insulin resistance: a theoretical mechanistic review emphasizing clinical evidence. J. Diabetes Res. 2021, 7796727 (2021). source
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- Interpretationcitation
A conventional hypocaloric diet would lead to gradual, long-term weight loss in older adults because of their often-reduced energy expenditure.
“Considering the often-reduced energy expenditure in these individuals, a conventional hypocaloric diet would lead to a gradual, long-term approach to weight loss171.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [171] Haywood, C. J. et al. Very low calorie diets for weight loss in obese older adults – a randomized trial. J. Gerontol. A Biol. Sci. Med. Sci. 73, 59–65 (2017). source
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- Premisecitation
Adherence to a moderate energy-restricted diet may be improved by a satiating effect attributed to protein intake.
“adherence to a moderate energy-restricted diet170 (for example, a reduction of ~500 kcal per day) may be further enhanced by a potential satiating effect attributed to protein intake.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [170] Goisser, S. et al. Sarcopenic obesity and complex interventions with nutrition and exercise in community-dwelling older persons – a narrative review. Clin. Interv. Aging 10, 1267–1282 (2015).
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- Premisecitation
NO can enhance insulin sensitivity by activating insulin receptor substrates and downstream signalling molecules such as Akt and mTOR, involved in muscle protein synthesis.
“NO can enhance insulin sensitivity by activating insulin receptor substrates and downstream signalling molecules, such as Akt and mTOR, which are involved in protein synthesis in muscle82.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [82] Muniyappa, R. & Sowers, J. R. Role of insulin resistance in endothelial dysfunction. Rev. Endocr. Metab. Disord. 14, 5–12 (2013). source
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- Premisecitation
Energy metabolism is disrupted in sarcopenia and sarcopenic obesity.
“Energy metabolism is also disrupted in sarcopenia and sarcopenic obesity86.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [86] Shoemaker, M. E. et al. Differences in muscle energy metabolism and metabolic flexibility between sarcopenic and nonsarcopenic older adults. J. Cachexia Sarcopenia Muscle 13, 1224–1237 (2022). source
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- Premisecitation
Whey proteins effectively stimulate postprandial muscle protein accretion because of fast digestion and absorption kinetics and high leucine content.
“Whey proteins are effective in stimulating postprandial muscle protein accretion, owing to their fast digestion and absorption kinetics and high leucine content180.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [180] Hector, A. J. et al. Whey protein supplementation preserves postprandial myofibrillar protein synthesis during short-term energy restriction in overweight and obese adults. J. Nutr. 145, 246–252 (2015). source
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Potential negative effects of hypocaloric diets on micronutrient status and bone mineral density may occur.
“Potential negative effects on micronutrient status and on bone mineral density may also occur166.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [166] Jiang, B. C. & Villareal, D. T. Weight loss-induced reduction of bone mineral density in older adults with obesity. J. Nutr. Gerontol. 38, 100–114 (2019). source
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- Premisecitation
Physical inactivity and sedentary lifestyle are common risk factors for sarcopenic obesity.
“Physical inactivity and a sedentary lifestyle are common risk factors for developing sarcopenic obesity87.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [87] Du, Y. et al. Associations of physical activity with sarcopenia and sarcopenic obesity in middle-aged and older adults: the Louisiana Osteoporosis Study. BMC Public. Health 22, 896 (2022). source
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- Premisecitation
Muscle loss after intentional diet-induced weight loss is more frequently observed in older adults with pre-existing sarcopenia.
“muscle loss following diet-induced intentional weight loss may be more frequently observed in older adults with pre-existing sarcopenia159,165,167.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked- cites [159] Villareal, D. T. et al. Aerobic or resistance exercise, or both, in dieting obese older adults. N. Engl. J. Med. 376, 1943–1955 (2017). This study involving 160 older adults with obesity finds that weight loss combined with aerobic and resistance exercise is most effective in enhancing functional status and mitigating the muscle and bone mass loss typically seen with weight reduction, compared with other exercise modalities or no exercise at all. source
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- cites [165] Batsis, J. A. et al. Weight loss interventions in older adults with obesity: a systematic review of randomized controlled trials since 2005. J. Am. Geriatr. Soc. 65, 257–268 (2017). This systematic review of clinical trials between 2005 and 2015 finds that combined dietary and exercise interventions are more effective for improving physical performance and quality of life in older adults with obesity than either intervention alone. source
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- cites [167] Villareal, D. T. et al. Weight loss, exercise, or both and physical function in obese older adults. N. Engl. J. Med. 364, 1218–1229 (2011). In a 1-year study of 107 older adults with obesity, combining weight loss and exercise led to greater enhancements in physical function and performance than either strategy alone, with participants also experiencing less decrease in lean body mass and bone density. source
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- Premisecitation
Sufficient blood flow is crucial for delivery of nutrients including glucose and amino acids to muscle tissues.
“Sufficient blood flow is crucial for the delivery of nutrients, including glucose and amino acids, to muscle tissues83.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [83] Murrant, C. L. & Sarelius, I. H. Coupling of muscle metabolism and muscle blood flow in capillary units during contraction. Acta Physiol. Scand. 168, 531–541 (2000). source
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- Premisecitation
Insufficient intake of micronutrients such as vitamin D, calcium, ω−3 fatty acids, and antioxidants can contribute to sarcopenia.
“Insufficient intake of some micronutrients, such as vitamin D, calcium, ω−3 fatty acids and antioxidant nutrients, which are vital for muscle health, can also contribute to sarcopenia90.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [90] Robinson, S., Cooper, C. & Aihie Sayer, A. Nutrition and sarcopenia: a review of the evidence and implications for preventive strategies. J. Aging Res. 2012, 510801 (2012). source
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- Premisecitation
Amino acids from animal-based sources have a more pronounced anabolic effect than those from plant-based sources.
“Amino acids derived from animal-based sources have a more pronounced anabolic effect than those derived from plant-based sources179.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [179] van Vliet, S., Burd, N. A. & van Loon, L. J. C. The skeletal muscle anabolic response to plant- versus animal-based protein consumption. J. Nutr. 145, 1981–1991 (2015). source
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- Premisenone given
Subanalyses of only two studies have evaluated outcomes of tirzepatide in older adults.
“To our knowledge, subanalyses of only two studies have evaluated outcomes in older adults.”
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Measures of strength and physical function consistently improve when bariatric surgery is combined with a resistance exercise programme.
“Importantly, all such measures of strength and physical function consistently demonstrate improvements when bariatric surgery is coupled with a resistance exercise programme197–199.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked- cites [197] Hassannejad, A., Khalaj, A., Mansournia, M. A., Rajabian Tabesh, M. & Alizadeh, Z. The effect of aerobic or aerobic-strength exercise on body composition and functional capacity in patients with BMI ≥35 after bariatric surgery: a randomized control trial. Obes. Surg. 27, 2792–2801 (2017). source
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- cites [198] Huck, C. J. Effects of supervised resistance training on fitness and functional strength in patients succeeding bariatric surgery. J. Strength. Cond. Res. 29, 589–595 (2015). source
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- cites [199] Oliveira, G. S. et al. Resistance training improves muscle strength and function, regardless of protein supplementation, in the mid- to long-term period after gastric bypass. Nutrients 14, 14 (2021). source
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- Premisecitation
Improvements in muscle and lean mass may not directly result in improved muscle function.
“Of note, potential improvements in muscle (and lean) mass may not directly result in improved muscle function214,215.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites [214] Snyder, P. J. et al. Effects of testosterone treatment in older men. N. Engl. J. Med. 374, 611–624 (2016). source
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- cites [215] Storer, T. W. et al. Effects of testosterone supplementation for 3 years on muscle performance and physical function in older men. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 102, 583–593 (2017).
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- Premisecitation
Existing data suggest that marked adipose tissue loss with semaglutide and tirzepatide occurs with concomitant muscle loss.
“Existing data suggest that marked adipose tissue loss with semaglutide and tirzepatide occurs with concomitant muscle loss202,204,205.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked- cites [202] Jastreboff, A. M. et al. Tirzepatide once weekly for the treatment of obesity. N. Engl. J. Med. 387, 205–216 (2022). source
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- cites [204] Wilding, J. P. H. et al. Once-weekly semaglutide in adults with overweight or obesity. N. Engl. J. Med. 384, 989–1002 (2021). source
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- cites [205] Yabe, D., Kawamori, D., Seino, Y., Oura, T. & Takeuchi, M. Change in pharmacodynamic variables following once-weekly tirzepatide treatment versus dulaglutide in Japanese patients with type 2 diabetes (SURPASS J-mono substudy). Diabetes Obes. Metab. 25, 398–406 (2023). source
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- Premisenone given
Existing studies have focused on younger populations that differ in surgery type, age groups, and comorbidities.
“Existing studies have focused on younger populations that differ in the type of surgery, in age groups and in comorbidities.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisenone given
The number of studies of bariatric surgery focused specifically on individuals with sarcopenic obesity is low.
“The number of studies of this treatment that focused specifically on individuals with sarcopenic obesity is low.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Premisecitation
A 2023 subanalysis of East Asian participants in the SURPASS trials demonstrated similar outcomes in younger adults (<65 years) and older adults (≥65 years).
“a 2023 subanalysis of East Asian participants in the SURPASS trials211 demonstrated similar outcomes in younger adults (<65 years of age) and older adults (≥65 years of age).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [211] Kiyosue, A. et al. Safety and efficacy analyses across age and body mass index subgroups in East Asian participants with type 2 diabetes in the phase 3 tirzepatide studies (SURPASS programme). Diabetes Obes. Metab. 25, 1056–1067 (2023). source
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- Premisecitation
Sleeve gastrectomy demonstrated greater preservation of bone and muscle than Roux-en-Y bypass in a study of 71 patients.
“Although all types of surgery lead to reduced muscle mass, sleeve gastrectomy demonstrated greater preservation of bone and muscle than Roux-en-Y bypass in a study in 71 patients191.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [191] Baad, V. M. A. et al. Body composition, sarcopenia and physical performance after bariatric surgery: differences between sleeve gastrectomy and Roux-en-Y gastric bypass. Obes. Surg. 32, 3830–3838 (2022). source
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- Premisecitation
In a study of 69 individuals with obesity, remission rates for comorbidities after bariatric surgery were similar regardless of sarcopenia, with no difference at 1 year.
“In one study assessing the influence of sarcopenia on outcomes in 69 individuals with obesity, the observed remission rates for comorbidities were similar, with no difference at 1 year192.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [192] Mastino, D. et al. Bariatric surgery outcomes in sarcopenic obesity. Obes. Surg. 26, 2355–2362 (2016). source
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- Premisecitation
Adverse effects of tirzepatide may be more pronounced in older than in younger adults in a dose-dependent fashion, as shown in a 2023 subanalysis.
“Last, adverse effects may be more pronounced in older than in younger adults, again in a dose-dependent fashion, as demonstrated in the 2023 subanalysis211.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [211] Kiyosue, A. et al. Safety and efficacy analyses across age and body mass index subgroups in East Asian participants with type 2 diabetes in the phase 3 tirzepatide studies (SURPASS programme). Diabetes Obes. Metab. 25, 1056–1067 (2023). source
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- Premisecitation
Robust evidence on the benefits of combined nutrition and exercise interventions is limited, particularly regarding protein supplementation.
“Robust evidence on the benefits of combined nutrition and exercise interventions is limited, particularly in relation to protein supplementation182,183.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites [182] Hita-Contreras, F. et al. Effect of exercise alone or combined with dietary supplements on anthropometric and physical performance measures in community-dwelling elderly people with sarcopenic obesity: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Maturitas 116, 24–35 (2018). source
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- cites [183] Martínez-Amat, A. et al. Exercise alone or combined with dietary supplements for sarcopenic obesity in community-dwelling older people: a systematic review of randomized controlled trials. Maturitas 110, 92–103 (2018). source
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- Premisecitation
Another rodent study showed that GLP1 directly induces myogenesis via a cAMP-dependent signalling network in skeletal muscle.
“Another study in rodents showed that GLP1 directly induces myogenesis via a complex cAMP-dependent signalling network in skeletal muscle209.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [209] Gurjar, A. A. et al. Long acting GLP-1 analog liraglutide ameliorates skeletal muscle atrophy in rodents. Metabolism 103, 154044 (2020). source
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- Premisenone given
Trials of tirzepatide, including SURMOUNT, demonstrated dose-dependent changes in lean mass using various body composition modalities.
“Trials of tirzepatide, including the SURMOUNT trial, demonstrated dose-dependent changes in lean mass, using various modalities for assessing body composition.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Premisecitation
Substantial weight loss seems to elicit a substantial loss of muscle mass.
“The important loss of weight seems to elicit a substantial loss of muscle mass206.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [206] Ida, S. et al. Effects of antidiabetic drugs on muscle mass in type 2 diabetes mellitus. Curr. Diabetes Rev. 17, 293–303 (2021). source
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- Interpretationreasoning
SARMs may benefit patients with sarcopenic obesity who require muscle mass increases rather than strength improvements.
“SARMs may be of benefit in patients with sarcopenic obesity who require muscle mass increases rather than strength improvements.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: SARMs selectively target androgen receptors on muscle and bone tissues.
- Interpretationreasoning
Current evidence for nutrients and ingredients proposed to enhance muscle health is inconclusive and sometimes conflicting because of few studies and small sample sizes.
“However, the current evidence for these treatments is inconclusive and sometimes conflicting owing to the limited number of studies and small sample sizes.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation
Rodent studies showed that GLP1 receptor agonists may increase microvascular blood volume and glucose transport in skeletal muscle cells, increasing delivery of oxygen, nutrients, and hormones such as insulin to myocytes.
“On the other hand, studies in rodents showed that GLP1 receptor agonists may increase microvascular blood volume and glucose transport in skeletal muscle cells, leading to increased delivery of oxygen, nutrients and hormones, such as insulin, to myocytes207,208.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites [207] Andreozzi, F. et al. The GLP-1 receptor agonists exenatide and liraglutide activate glucose transport by an AMPK-dependent mechanism. J. Transl. Med. 14, 229 (2016). source
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- cites [208] Li, Z., Ni, C. L., Yao, Z., Chen, L. M. & Niu, W. Y. Liraglutide enhances glucose transporter 4 translocation via regulation of AMP-activated protein kinase signaling pathways in mouse skeletal muscle cells. Metabolism 63, 1022–1030 (2014). source
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- Premisecitation
Weight loss of >20% with marked improvements in subjective and objective physical function measures has been reported with newer GLP1 receptor agonists semaglutide and tirzepatide.
“A weight loss of >20% with marked improvements in both subjective and objective physical function measures has been reported with these newer medications200–203.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 4 sources checked- cites [200] Aroda, V. R. et al. Efficacy and safety of once-daily oral semaglutide 25 mg and 50 mg compared with 14 mg in adults with type 2 diabetes (PIONEER PLUS): a multicentre, randomised, phase 3b trial. Lancet 402, 693–704 (2023). source
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- cites [201] Davies, M. et al. Semaglutide 2.4 mg once a week in adults with overweight or obesity, and type 2 diabetes (STEP 2): a randomised, double-blind, double-dummy, placebo-controlled, phase 3 trial. Lancet 397, 971–984 (2021). source
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- cites [202] Jastreboff, A. M. et al. Tirzepatide once weekly for the treatment of obesity. N. Engl. J. Med. 387, 205–216 (2022). source
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- cites [203] Knop, F. K. et al. Oral semaglutide 50 mg taken once per day in adults with overweight or obesity (OASIS 1): a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled, phase 3 trial. Lancet 402, 705–719 (2023). This study finds that pharmacological intervention with semaglutide to treat adults with overweight or obesity without type 2 diabetes mellitus results in considerable weight reduction compared with placebo. source
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- Premisecitation
In a trial of bimagrumab (700 mg vs placebo monthly for 6 months) with a healthy diet and home-based exercise in 180 community-dwelling individuals >70 years with sarcopenia, bimagrumab improved functional parameters and lean mass.
“In a trial of the activin receptor type 2B inhibitor bimagrumab (700 mg vs placebo monthly for 6 months) in combination with a healthy diet and a home-based exercise programme among 180 community-dwelling individuals >70 years of age with sarcopenia, bimagrumab improved functional parameters and lean mass222.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [222] Rooks, D. et al. Bimagrumab vs optimized standard of care for treatment of sarcopenia in community-dwelling older adults: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA Netw. Open. 3, e2020836 (2020). source
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- Premisecitation
Large-scale studies such as LOOK-AHEAD and PREDIMED established that individuals have different responses and outcomes to dietary interventions based on individual and genetic characteristics.
“Large-scale studies such as LOOK-AHEAD226 and PREDIMED227 established that individuals have different responses and outcomes to dietary interventions based on individual and genetic characteristics.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites [226] Pi-Sunyer, X. The Look AHEAD trial: a review and discussion of its outcomes. Curr. Nutr. Rep. 3, 387–391 (2014). source
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- cites [227] Martínez-González, M. et al. Cohort profile: design and methods of the PREDIMED study. Int. J. Epidemiol. 41, 377–385 (2012). source
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- Premisecitation
Studies in mice suggest that MSC transplantation may bolster improvements observed with exercise without worsening inflammation.
“To date, studies have demonstrated promising results in mice, suggesting that MSC transplantation may bolster improvements observed with exercise without worsening inflammation224.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [224] Kono, Y. et al. Mesenchymal stem cells promote IL-6 secretion and suppress the gene expression of proinflammatory cytokines in contractile C2C12 myotubes. Biol. Pharm. Bull. 45, 962–967 (2022). source
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- Premisenone given
There are no equivalent studies of MSC transplantation in humans.
“To our knowledge, there are no equivalent studies in humans.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
- May combine two claims. 45
- Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 8
May combine two claims.
FindingcitationSarcopenic obesity has considerable clinical impact, linked to high risk of death, comorbidities, metabolic disorders, and geriatric syndromes including frailty.
“These data demonstrate that sarcopenic obesity has a considerable clinical impact, as it is linked to a high risk of death, comorbidities, metabolic disorders and geriatric syndromes, including frailty.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites 21–46
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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
PremisecitationA 2022 consensus statement established a new definition and diagnostic criteria for sarcopenic obesity.
“A 2022 consensus statement established a new definition and diagnostic criteria for sarcopenic obesity.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites [2] Donini, L. M. et al. Definition and diagnostic criteria for sarcopenic obesity: ESPEN and EASO consensus statement. Clin. Nutr. 41, 990–1000 (2022). Collaboration between ESPEN and EASO has established a unified definition and diagnostic criteria for sarcopenic obesity, aiming to streamline research and treatment approaches for this prevalent condition. source
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- cites [3] Donini, L. M. et al. Definition and diagnostic criteria for sarcopenic obesity: ESPEN and EASO consensus statement. Obes. Facts 15, 321–335 (2022). source
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May combine two claims.
PremisecitationAgeing is associated with increased adipose tissue mass and visceral distribution, attributed to hormonal changes, low muscle mass, low physical activity, unfavourable metabolism, and lifestyle factors.
“Ageing is associated with an increase in adipose tissue mass and distribution (that is, an increase in visceral adipose tissue), which can be attributed to various factors such as hormonal changes, low muscle mass, low physical activity, unfavourable changes in metabolism and lifestyle factors47.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [47] JafariNasabian, P., Inglis, J. E., Reilly, W., Kelly, O. J. & Ilich, J. Z. Aging human body: changes in bone, muscle and body fat with consequent changes in nutrient intake. J. Endocrinol. 234, R37–R51 (2017). source
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PremisecitationPrecipitating events such as falls, hip fractures, stroke, or other illnesses can impair mobility and trigger acute-phase responses, leading to body composition changes.
“In addition, changes in body composition may result from precipitating events, such as falls, hip fractures, stroke or other illnesses, all of which temporarily or permanently impair mobility, and are accompanied by acute-phase responses15.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [15] Baumgartner, R. N. & Waters, D. L. in Principles and Practice of Geriatric Medicine (eds Pathy, M. S. J., Sinclair, A. J. & Morley, J. E.) 909–933 (Wiley, 2005). source
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PremisecitationNot all older adults with obesity have sarcopenia because excess body weight usually stimulates muscle and bone mechanoreceptors, triggering growth factor synthesis and muscle formation.
“Of note, not all older adults with obesity will exhibit sarcopenia, as excess body weight usually stimulates muscle (and bone) mechanoreceptors, triggering growth factor synthesis that leads to muscle formation11.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [11] Stenholm, S. et al. Sarcopenic obesity: definition, cause and consequences. Curr. Opin. Clin. Nutr. Metab. Care 11, 693–700 (2008). source
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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
PremisecitationSarcopenic obesity was first defined in 1996 as simultaneous excess adipose tissue and reduced muscle mass.
“Sarcopenic obesity was first defined in 1996 (ref. 1) as a syndrome characterized by the simultaneous presence of excess adipose tissue and reduced muscle mass.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [1] Heber, D. et al. Clinical detection of sarcopenic obesity by bioelectrical impedance analysis. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 64, 472s–477s (1996). source
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PremisecitationOxidative stress adversely affects muscle health through protein breakdown, inflammation, impaired regeneration, mitochondrial dysfunction, and insulin resistance.
“Oxidative stress adversely impacts muscle health through muscle protein breakdown60, muscle inflammation61, impaired muscle regeneration62, mitochondrial dysfunction63 and insulin resistance50.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 5 sources checked- cites [50] Gonzalez, A. et al. The critical role of oxidative stress in sarcopenic obesity. Oxid. Med. Cell Longev. 2021, 4493817 (2021). source
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- cites [60] Powers, S. K., Smuder, A. J. & Criswell, D. S. Mechanistic links between oxidative stress and disuse muscle atrophy. Antioxid. Redox Signal. 15, 2519–2528 (2011). source
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- cites [61] Chen, M., Wang, Y., Deng, S., Lian, Z. & Yu, K. Skeletal muscle oxidative stress and inflammation in aging: focus on antioxidant and anti-inflammatory therapy. Front. Cell Dev. Biol. 10, 964130 (2022). source
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- cites [62] Lian, D., Chen, M. M., Wu, H., Deng, S. & Hu, X. The role of oxidative stress in skeletal muscle myogenesis and muscle disease. Antioxidants 11, 755 (2022). source
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- cites [63] Ferri, E. et al. Role of age-related mitochondrial dysfunction in sarcopenia. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 21, 5236 (2020). source
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May combine two claims.
PremisecitationWeight gain or weight loss can contribute to the development of sarcopenic obesity.
“Various metabolic scenarios, such as weight gain or loss, can contribute to the development of sarcopenic obesity.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [14] Prado, C. M. M., Wells, J. C. K., Smith, S. R., Stephan, B. C. M. & Siervo, M. Sarcopenic obesity: a critical appraisal of the current evidence. Clin. Nutr. 31, 583–601 (2012). This review highlights the significance of sarcopenic obesity due to its dual metabolic burden, and underscores the inconsistency in study methodologies. source
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PremisecitationIn population-representative US data, sarcopenic obesity prevalence was 28.3% in people over 60 years, and 66.6% in Mexican Americans.
“Population-representative data for the USA demonstrated a prevalence of sarcopenic obesity of 28.3% in people >60 years of age, with a higher prevalence of 66.6% in Mexican Americans7.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [7] Murdock, D. J. et al. The prevalence of low muscle mass associated with obesity in the USA. Skelet. Muscle 12, 26 (2022). source
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PremisecitationAgeing is associated with increased oxidative damage to muscle cells, and oxidative stress is a key factor in development and progression of sarcopenia.
“Ageing is associated with an increase in oxidative damage to muscle cells, with oxidative stress identified as a key factor in the development and progression of sarcopenia59.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [59] Meng, S. J. & Yu, L. J. Oxidative stress, molecular inflammation and sarcopenia. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 11, 1509–1526 (2010). source
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PremisecitationWeight gain can increase adipose cell size, promoting immune cell recruitment and secretion of inflammatory factors such as IL-6, CRP, and TNF, creating low-grade chronic inflammation that can impair insulin sensitivity.
“Weight gain can result in an increase in adipose cell size, which may promote the recruitment of immune cells and secretion of inflammatory factors within adipose tissue, such as IL-6, C-reactive protein and tumour necrosis factor, creating a state of low-grade chronic inflammation that can impair insulin sensitivity57.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [57] Kawai, T., Autieri, M. V. & Scalia, R. Adipose tissue inflammation and metabolic dysfunction in obesity. Am. J. Physiol. Cell Physiol. 320, C375–C391 (2021). source
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PremisecitationMyostatin is upregulated in sarcopenia, while irisin appears downregulated.
“Production of myostatin, a growth-inhibiting myokine, is upregulated in sarcopenia64, whereas that of muscle-mass-stimulating irisin seems to be downregulated65.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites [64] White, T. A. & LeBrasseur, N. K. Myostatin and sarcopenia: opportunities and challenges – a mini-review. Gerontology 60, 289–293 (2014). source
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- cites [65] Chang, J. S. et al. Circulating irisin levels as a predictive biomarker for sarcopenia: a cross-sectional community-based study. Geriatr. Gerontol. Int. 17, 2266–2273 (2017). source
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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
PremisecitationThe definition of sarcopenic obesity has evolved to include reduced muscle function, with muscle strength as the predominant measure.
“However, the definition has evolved to also incorporate reduced muscle function in the diagnosis of sarcopenia in older adults2,3, with muscle strength being the predominant measure of function.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites [2] Donini, L. M. et al. Definition and diagnostic criteria for sarcopenic obesity: ESPEN and EASO consensus statement. Clin. Nutr. 41, 990–1000 (2022). Collaboration between ESPEN and EASO has established a unified definition and diagnostic criteria for sarcopenic obesity, aiming to streamline research and treatment approaches for this prevalent condition. source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [3] Donini, L. M. et al. Definition and diagnostic criteria for sarcopenic obesity: ESPEN and EASO consensus statement. Obes. Facts 15, 321–335 (2022). source
Not checked in the free run.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).
Interpretationnone givenEmerging therapies developed for other conditions may be relevant to sarcopenic obesity, including novel pharmacological agents and precision medicine.
“Emerging therapies that were developed for treating other conditions may be relevant to sarcopenic obesity, including novel pharmacological agents and personalized approaches such as precision medicine.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
PremisecitationAgeing-associated decline in testosterone and oestrogen weakens muscle, reducing mass and strength.
“Ageing-associated decline in testosterone and oestrogen levels weakens muscle, reducing both muscle mass and strength66.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [66] Gupta, P. & Kumar, S. Sarcopenia and endocrine ageing: are they related? Cureus 14, e28787 (2022).
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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
PremisecitationSarcopenic obesity represents the intersection of ageing populations and the obesity epidemic.
“Sarcopenic obesity exemplifies the intersection of two prevalent health crises: ageing populations and the obesity epidemic4.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [4] Roubenoff, R. Sarcopenic obesity: the confluence of two epidemics. Obes. Res. 12, 887–888 (2004). This commentary discusses how the convergence of the obesity epidemic with an ageing population magnifies the risk of sarcopenic obesity, posing unprecedented health challenges and underscoring the urgent need for interdisciplinary collaboration. source
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PremisecitationDecreased anabolic hormones (growth hormone, IGF1, testosterone) contribute to muscle loss and hindered protein synthesis.
“Decreased levels of anabolic hormones, such as growth hormone, insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF1) and testosterone, contribute to muscle loss and hindered protein synthesis48.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [48] Sakuma, K. & Yamaguchi, A. Sarcopenic obesity and endocrinal adaptation with age. Int. J. Endocrinol. 2013, 204164 (2013). source
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PremisecitationNO modulates insulin signalling in muscle cells, while obesity and metabolic syndrome are associated with decreased whole-body NO synthesis.
“NO modulates insulin signalling pathways in muscle cells80, while obesity and metabolic syndrome are associated with decreased whole-body NO synthesis81.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites [80] Bergandi, L. et al. Insulin stimulates glucose transport via nitric oxide/cyclic GMP pathway in human vascular smooth muscle cells. Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol. 23, 2215–2221 (2003). source
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- cites [81] Siervo, M., Jackson, S. J. & Bluck, L. J. In-vivo nitric oxide synthesis is reduced in obese patients with metabolic syndrome: application of a novel stable isotopic method. J. Hypertens. 29, 1515–1527 (2011). source
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PremisecitationAgeing is related to decline in nitric oxide production and skeletal muscle blood flow.
“Ageing has also been related to a decline in nitric oxide (NO) production76 and skeletal muscle blood flow77.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites [76] Sverdlov, A. L., Ngo, D. T. M., Chan, W. P. A., Chirkov, Y. Y. & Horowitz, J. D. Aging of the nitric oxide system: are we as old as our NO? J. Am. Heart Assoc. 3, e000973 (2014). source
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- cites [77] Hearon, C. M. Jr & Dinenno, F. A. Regulation of skeletal muscle blood flow during exercise in ageing humans. J. Physiol. 594, 2261–2273 (2016). source
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PremisecitationNO and insulin are crucial for muscle metabolism and implicated in sarcopenia development and progression.
“NO and insulin are crucial for muscle metabolism and are implicated in the development and progression of sarcopenia78,79.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites [78] Cleasby, M. E., Jamieson, P. M. & Atherton, P. J. Insulin resistance and sarcopenia: mechanistic links between common co-morbidities. J. Endocrinol. 229, R67–R81 (2016). source
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- cites [79] Timmerman, K. L. & Volpi, E. Endothelial function and the regulation of muscle protein anabolism in older adults. Nutr. Metab. Cardiovasc. Dis. 23, S44–S50 (2013). source
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PremisecitationOlder adults may be at high risk of low protein intake and inadequate essential amino acid consumption.
“For example, older adults might be at high risk of a low protein intake and inadequate consumption of essential amino acids89.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [89] Deutz, N. E. et al. Protein intake and exercise for optimal muscle function with aging: recommendations from the ESPEN Expert Group. Clin. Nutr. 33, 929–936 (2014). This expert opinion highlights the importance of maintaining muscle function during ageing through adequate protein intake (1.0–1.2 g/kg body weight daily for healthy older adults and 1.2–1.5 g/kg daily for malnourished adults or those facing illness) and daily physical activity or exercise for sustained muscle health. source
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InterpretationreasoningNot only the amount but also the source of protein may be crucial for preserving muscle mass.
“As such, not only the amount of protein but also the source of protein might be crucial for preserving muscle mass.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
PremisecitationIncreased cortisol promotes protein breakdown and inhibits protein synthesis, exacerbating muscle wasting and sarcopenia.
“Concurrently, increased levels of catabolic hormones, such as cortisol, promote protein breakdown and inhibit protein synthesis, exacerbating muscle wasting and sarcopenia67.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [67] Braun, T. P. & Marks, D. L. The regulation of muscle mass by endogenous glucocorticoids. Front. Physiol. 6, 12 (2015). source
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PremisecitationChronic stress can lead to overeating and sedentary lifestyle, increasing sarcopenia risk.
“Chronic stress can lead to overeating and/or a sedentary lifestyle67,72, factors that may increase the risk of sarcopenia.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites [67] Braun, T. P. & Marks, D. L. The regulation of muscle mass by endogenous glucocorticoids. Front. Physiol. 6, 12 (2015). source
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- cites [72] van Rossum, E. F. C. Obesity and cortisol: new perspectives on an old theme. Obesity 25, 500–501 (2017). source
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PremisecitationChronic stress and high cortisol can negatively impact muscle tissue and increase sarcopenia risk.
“Chronic stress and consistently high cortisol levels can negatively impact muscle tissue and increase sarcopenia risk68.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [68] Yanagita, I. et al. A high serum cortisol/DHEA-S ratio is a risk factor for sarcopenia in elderly diabetic patients. J. Endocr. Soc. 3, 801–813 (2019). source
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PremisecitationCortisol can negatively affect bone health and exacerbate age-related bone density decline, possibly contributing to osteosarcopenic obesity.
“Furthermore, cortisol can negatively affect bone health73 and exacerbate age-related bone density decline, possibly contributing to the development of osteosarcopenic obesity74.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites [73] Chiodini, I., Torlontano, M., Carnevale, V., Trischitta, V. & Scillitani, A. Skeletal involvement in adult patients with endogenous hypercortisolism. J. Endocrinol. Invest. 31, 267–276 (2008). source
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- cites [74] Ormsbee, M. J. et al. Osteosarcopenic obesity: the role of bone, muscle, and fat on health. J. Cachexia Sarcopenia Muscle 5, 183–192 (2014). source
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PremisecitationNO and insulin regulate mitochondrial function by enhancing mitochondrial respiration and biogenesis, and insulin stimulates cellular glucose uptake and utilization in mitochondria.
“Both NO and insulin have crucial roles in regulating mitochondrial function by enhancing mitochondrial respiration and promoting mitochondrial biogenesis, whereas insulin stimulates cellular glucose uptake and its subsequent utilization within the mitochondria85.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [85] Tengan, C. H., Rodrigues, G. S. & Godinho, R. O. Nitric oxide in skeletal muscle: role on mitochondrial biogenesis and function. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 13, 17160–17184 (2012). The review discusses the physiological roles of nitric oxide in mitochondrial energetics and skeletal muscle function. source
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Classified as probably not a substantial claim.
PremisecitationHigher protein intake is particularly important in older adults at higher risk of anabolic resistance.
“Importantly, a higher protein intake is particularly important in older adults who are at higher risk of anabolic resistance174,175.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites [174] Burd, N. A., Gorissen, S. H. & van Loon, L. J. C. Anabolic resistance of muscle protein synthesis with aging. Exerc. Sport. Sci. Rev. 41, 169–173 (2013). source
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- cites [175] Boirie, Y., Morio, B., Caumon, E. & Cano, N. J. Nutrition and protein energy homeostasis in elderly. Mech. Ageing Dev. 136–137, 76–84 (2014). source
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PremisecitationFood insecurity has been proposed as a risk factor for sarcopenic obesity, associated with poor diet quality, nutritional deficiencies, physical inactivity, and unfavourable metabolic changes.
“Food insecurity has also been proposed as a risk factor in developing sarcopenic obesity91, as it may be associated with poor diet quality, nutritional deficiencies, physical inactivity and unfavourable metabolic changes.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [91] Fonseca-Pérez, D., Arteaga-Pazmiño, C., Maza-Moscoso, C. P., Flores-Madrid, S. & Álvarez-Córdova, L. Food insecurity as a risk factor of sarcopenic obesity in older adults. Front. Nutr. 9, 1040089 (2022). source
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PremisecitationNO-mediated vasodilation can enhance blood flow and nutrient delivery to muscles, supporting muscle metabolism and potentially mitigating sarcopenia.
“NO-mediated vasodilation can enhance blood flow and nutrient delivery to muscles, supporting muscle metabolism and potentially mitigating sarcopenia84.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [84] Wagenmakers, A. J., Strauss, J. A., Shepherd, S. O., Keske, M. A. & Cocks, M. Increased muscle blood supply and transendothelial nutrient and insulin transport induced by food intake and exercise: effect of obesity and ageing. J. Physiol. 594, 2207–2222 (2016). source
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PremisecitationHigh cortisol may link to muscle loss via mTOR inhibition, suppression of IGF1 and testosterone anabolic effects, and activation of ubiquitin-proteasome system.
“Mechanisms that might link high cortisol levels to the loss of muscle mass include inhibition of the mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) pathway69, suppression of the anabolic effects of IGF1 (ref. 69) and testosterone70, and activation of the ubiquitin–proteasome system in skeletal muscle71.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked- cites [69] Shimizu, N. et al. Crosstalk between glucocorticoid receptor and nutritional sensor mTOR in skeletal muscle. Cell Metab. 13, 170–182 (2011). source
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- cites [70] Brownlee, K. K., Moore, A. W. & Hackney, A. C. Relationship between circulating cortisol and testosterone: influence of physical exercise. J. Sports Sci. Med. 4, 76–83 (2005).
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- cites [71] Sun, L., Trausch-Azar, J. S., Muglia, L. J. & Schwartz, A. L. Glucocorticoids differentially regulate degradation of MyoD and Id1 by N-terminal ubiquitination to promote muscle protein catabolism. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 105, 3339–3344 (2008). source
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PremisecitationThe SURPASS-1 trial demonstrated improvements in HbA1c that were lower in older adults than in younger individuals and not dose-dependent.
“The SURPASS-1 trial demonstrated improvements in HbA1c that were lower in older adults than in younger individuals and not dose-dependent210”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [210] Rosenstock, J. et al. Efficacy and safety of a novel dual GIP and GLP-1 receptor agonist tirzepatide in patients with type 2 diabetes (SURPASS-1): a double-blind, randomised, phase 3 trial. Lancet 398, 143–155 (2021). source
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PremisereasoningFew studies have evaluated the impact of bariatric surgery on sarcopenic obesity, as most focused solely on postsurgical musculoskeletal health.
“Few studies have evaluated the impact of bariatric surgery on sarcopenic obesity, as most studies focused solely on postsurgical evaluation of musculoskeletal health.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
PremisecitationIn a study of 80 women with obesity assigned to Roux-en-Y bypass with or without exercise, there were no differences in phenotypic and genotypic characteristics between groups.
“A separate study in 80 women with obesity assigned to Roux-en-Y bypass with or without exercise found no differences in the phenotypic and genotypic characteristics between groups193.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [193] Gil, S. et al. A randomized clinical trial on the effects of exercise on muscle remodelling following bariatric surgery. J. Cachexia Sarcopenia Muscle 12, 1440–1455 (2021). source
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InterpretationreasoningThe combination of nutrition and exercise may substantially reduce adiposity while increasing muscle mass and physical function, sometimes without BMI change.
“Nevertheless, based on the available evidence, physiologically the combination of nutrition and exercise may substantially reduce adiposity with concomitant increase in muscle mass (in some cases without any BMI variation) and physical function (for example, handgrip strength and gait speed).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
PremisecitationUse of newer anti-obesity medications may lead to substantial weight loss with improvements in comorbidities and reductions in heart failure risk.
“While the use of newer medications may lead to substantial weight loss, with resultant improvements in comorbidities and reductions in risk of heart failure212, obtaining a solid understanding of the long-term consequences of these interventions is of the utmost importance, particularly in older adults.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [212] Harris, E. Semaglutide improves heart failure and cardiovascular disease. JAMA 330, 1127–1127 (2023).
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Premisenone givenThese anti-obesity medications have not been specifically tested in populations with sarcopenic obesity, and trials have restricted older adults and individuals with chronic diseases.
“These AOMs have not been specifically tested in populations with sarcopenic obesity and, furthermore, clinical trials have both restricted the number of older adults enrolled in their studies and limited the number of individuals with chronic diseases.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Premisenone givenIn tirzepatide trials, body composition was not assessed and there were no objective measurements of physical function.
“Crucially, body composition was not assessed, and in all such trials there have been no objective measurements of physical function.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
PremisecitationSARMs indirectly affect non-muscle androgen receptor pathways mediated by muscle fibroblasts and, in some but not all studies, have been shown to increase muscle mass and physical function.
“SARMs indirectly affect non-muscle androgen receptor pathways mediated by muscle fibroblasts and, in some but not all studies have been shown to increase muscle mass and physical function216.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [216] Bhasin, S., Krishnan, V., Storer, T. W., Steiner, M. & Dobs, A. S. Androgens and selective androgen receptor modulators to treat functional limitations associated with aging and chronic disease. J. Gerontol. A Biol. Sci. Med. Sci. 78, 25–31 (2023). source
Not checked in the free run.
May combine two claims.
InterpretationreasoningWhen combined with growth hormone, testosterone supplementation can mitigate negative effects of obesity and ageing by promoting IGF1 mRNA and protein expression and increasing muscle protein synthesis, muscle mass, and function, particularly with exercise.
“When combined with growth hormone, testosterone supplementation can mitigate the negative effects of obesity (increasing diet-induced adipose tissue loss) and of the ageing process, by promoting IGF1 mRNA and protein expression, and increasing muscle protein synthesis, and muscle mass and function, particularly when combined with exercise intervention.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
PremisecitationTime-restrictive eating can lead to weight loss without substantial muscle loss and is associated with improvements in cardiovascular function and other physiological markers.
“This dietary approach can lead to weight loss without substantial loss of muscle mass and is associated with improvements in cardiovascular function and other physiological markers188–190.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked- cites [188] Kirkham, A. A. et al. Implementation of weekday time-restricted eating to improve metabolic health in breast cancer survivors with overweight/obesity. Obesity 31, 150–160 (2023). source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [189] Kirkham, A. A., Parr, E. B. & Kleckner, A. S. Cardiometabolic health impacts of time-restricted eating: implications for type 2 diabetes, cancer and cardiovascular diseases. Curr. Opin. Clin. Nutr. Metab. Care 25, 378–387 (2022). source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [190] Martens, C. R. et al. Short-term time-restricted feeding is safe and feasible in non-obese healthy midlife and older adults. Geroscience 42, 667–686 (2020). source
Not checked in the free run.
May combine two claims.
Premisenone givenStudies of anamorelin are highly heterogeneous; treatment improved lean mass but failed to improve muscle function in different trials.
“Studies investigating anamorelin are characterized by high heterogeneity; however, treatment with this hormone analogue improved lean mass but failed to improve muscle function in different trials.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
PremisereasoningThe proportion of muscle mass loss relative to adipose tissue and the degree of resolution of myosteatosis and ectopic adipose tissue deposition with semaglutide and tirzepatide remain unclear.
“However, the proportion of muscle mass loss (relative to adipose tissue) and the degree of resolution of myosteatosis and ectopic adipose tissue deposition (that is, improvement in muscle composition) remain unclear.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Premisenone givenData on testosterone supplementation are conflicting: some trials found no significant effects on muscle health, while others found no impact on physical function.
“Nonetheless, the data are conflicting: some trials found no significant effects of testosterone supplementation on muscle health, while others found there was no impact on physical function.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
PremisecitationAnamorelin, an oral ghrelin analogue, has mostly been studied in cancer and has anti-inflammatory and anabolic properties.
“This oral ghrelin analogue has mostly been studied in cancer217–219 and has anti-inflammatory and anabolic properties.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked- cites [217] Currow, D. C., Maddocks, M., Cella, D. & Muscaritoli, M. Efficacy of anamorelin, a novel non-peptide ghrelin analogue, in patients with advanced non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) and cachexia – review and expert opinion. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 19, 3471 (2018). source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [218] Fonseca, G. W. P. D. & von Haehling, S. An overview of anamorelin as a treatment option for cancer-associated anorexia and cachexia. Expert. Opin. Pharmacother. 22, 889–895 (2021). source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [219] Wakabayashi, H., Arai, H. & Inui, A. Anamorelin in Japanese patients with cancer cachexia: an update. Curr. Opin. Support. Palliat. Care 17, 162–167 (2023). source
Not checked in the free run.
May combine two claims.
PremisecitationAgeing leads to testosterone deficiency that may impair muscle adaptation to exercise, as reduced muscle mass and IGF1 expression can increase pro-inflammatory cytokines.
“Ageing leads to testosterone deficiency that may impair muscle adaptation to exercise, as reduced muscle mass and IGF1 expression can increase pro-inflammatory cytokines213.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [213] Pataky, M. W., Young, W. F. & Nair, K. S. Hormonal and metabolic changes of aging and the influence of lifestyle modifications. Mayo Clin. Proc. 96, 788–814 (2021). source
Not checked in the free run.
May combine two claims.
Premisenone givenStudies of anamorelin in patients with sarcopenic obesity have not been conducted, and it is unclear whether observed lean mass improvements have differential effects across patient populations.
“Studies in patients with sarcopenic obesity have not been conducted, and it is unclear whether the improvements in lean mass observed have differential effects in different patient populations.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
InterpretationreasoningThe lack of association between muscle mass and function can be related to how muscle mass was assessed (quantity only versus quantity and composition) or to other factors besides muscle mass.
“This lack of association can be related to how muscle mass was assessed (that is, quantity only versus quantity and composition), or to other factors associated with muscle function besides muscle mass.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
PremisecitationMixed findings have been observed for strength measures after bariatric surgery, while improvements in physical function measures such as walking speed and sit-to-stand tests are more consistent.
“Mixed findings have been observed in strength measures, while more consistent improvements have been found in physical function measures, including walking speed and sit-to-stand tests193,195,196.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked- cites [193] Gil, S. et al. A randomized clinical trial on the effects of exercise on muscle remodelling following bariatric surgery. J. Cachexia Sarcopenia Muscle 12, 1440–1455 (2021). source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [195] Alba, D. L. et al. Changes in lean mass, absolute and relative muscle strength, and physical performance after gastric bypass surgery. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 104, 711–720 (2019). source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [196] Reinmann, A. et al. Bariatric surgery: consequences on functional capacities in patients with obesity. Front. Endocrinol. 12, 646283 (2021). source
Not checked in the free run.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
PremisecitationMyostatin can be modulated by diet.
“Interestingly, myostatin can be modulated by diet221.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [221] Perry, C. A., Van Guilder, G. P. & Butterick, T. A. Decreased myostatin in response to a controlled DASH diet is associated with improved body composition and cardiometabolic biomarkers in older adults: results from a controlled-feeding diet intervention study. BMC Nutr. 8, 24 (2022). source
Not checked in the free run.
May combine two claims.
PremisecitationIn mice fed a high-fat diet, injection of umbilical cord MSCs led to improvements in physical function and mitigated obesity-related muscle atrophy.
“In mice fed a high-fat diet, injection of umbilical cord MSCs led to improvements in physical function and mitigated obesity-related muscle atrophy225.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [225] Song, J. et al. Mesenchymal stromal cells ameliorate diabetes-induced muscle atrophy through exosomes by enhancing AMPK/ULK1-mediated autophagy. J. Cachexia Sarcopenia Muscle 14, 915–929 (2023). source
Not checked in the free run.
May combine two claims.
PremisecitationInhibition of myostatin leads to muscle cell hyperplasia and hypertrophy, suppresses irisin, downregulates pro-inflammatory cytokines, and may have beneficial effects on metabolism, adiposity, and insulin sensitivity.
“While inhibition of myostatin leads to muscle cell hyperplasia and hypertrophy, suppresses irisin and downregulates pro-inflammatory cytokines, it may also have beneficial effects on metabolism, adiposity and insulin sensitivity220.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [220] Consitt, L. A. & Clark, B. C. The vicious cycle of myostatin signaling in sarcopenic obesity: myostatin role in skeletal muscle growth, insulin signaling and implications for clinical trials. J. Frailty Aging 7, 21–27 (2018).
Not checked in the free run.
May combine two claims.
Premisenone givenThe bimagrumab trial population included participants with BMI up to 32 kg/m2, but there was no specific subanalysis for those with obesity.
“While the study population included participants with BMI up to 32 kg/m2, there was no specific subanalysis for those with obesity.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
The paper relies on this without support.
Acute or chronic conditions magnify the impact of pathophysiological factors in older adults by increasing inflammation, limiting mobility, causing prolonged bed rest, altering medication pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics, and inducing nutrition impact symptoms.
“These factors become even more important when older adults are affected by acute or chronic conditions, which can magnify the impact of these factors by further increasing inflammation, limiting mobility or leading to prolonged bed rest, altering medication pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics, and inducing nutrition impact symptoms.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Loss of muscle mass is closely associated with ageing and typically begins in middle age and accelerates in later years.
“The loss of muscle mass is closely associated with ageing and typically begins in middle age and accelerates in later years.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The shift in muscle composition toward adipose infiltration contributes to decreased muscle quality and impaired muscle function.
“This shift in composition contributes to decreased muscle ‘quality’ (that is, composition) and impaired muscle function.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Insulin resistance impairs protein anabolism, directly affecting muscle fibre atrophy and promoting muscle catabolism.
“Insulin resistance impairs protein anabolism, directly affecting muscle fibre atrophy and promoting muscle catabolism.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Mitochondrial dysfunction and myosteatosis may further contribute to insulin resistance, which in turn impacts glucose metabolism and muscle protein synthesis.
“Mitochondrial dysfunction and myosteatosis may further contribute to insulin resistance, which in turn, impacts glucose metabolism and muscle protein synthesis.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Insulin stimulates uptake of glucose and amino acids into muscle cells, promoting protein synthesis and muscle growth.
“Insulin stimulates the uptake of glucose and amino acids into muscle cells, promoting protein synthesis and muscle growth.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Hormonal alterations further contribute to reduced muscle mass and adipose tissue deposition.
“These hormonal alterations further contribute to reduced muscle mass and adipose tissue deposition.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Increased insulin signalling in response to NO might help maintain muscle mass and function.
“Increased insulin signalling in response to NO might help maintain muscle mass and function.”
The paper relies on this without support.
NO is a potent vasodilator that regulates blood flow.
“NO is also a potent vasodilator that regulates blood flow.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The interplay between NO and insulin in maintaining mitochondrial health may contribute to muscle preservation.
“The interplay between NO and insulin in maintaining mitochondrial health may contribute to muscle preservation.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Hypocaloric diets can promote muscle loss by downregulating muscle protein synthesis and increasing proteolysis.
“Hypocaloric diets can effectively reduce adipose tissue but may promote muscle loss by downregulating muscle protein synthesis and increasing proteolysis.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The long-term sustainability of very-low-calorie diets is questionable because many individuals regain weight after stopping the diet.
“Moreover, the sustainability of VLCDs is questionable, with many individuals regaining weight after transitioning off the diet.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Recommendations based on current body weight may not be feasible in individuals with obesity, especially during a low-calorie diet.
“Interestingly, recommendations based on current body weight may not be feasible in individuals with obesity, especially in the context of a low-calorie diet.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Bariatric surgery leads to marked adipose tissue loss and relative improvements in physical function but also profound muscle mass losses.
“Although bariatric surgery leads to marked adipose tissue loss with relative improvements in physical function, it also leads to profound muscle mass losses.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Myosteatosis and ectopic adipose tissue deposition are at the heart of a vicious pro-inflammatory cycle in the pathophysiology of sarcopenic obesity.
“Myosteatosis and ectopic adipose tissue deposition are extremely important as they are at the heart of a vicious, pro-inflammatory cycle observed in the pathophysiology of sarcopenic obesity.”
The paper relies on this without support.
SARMs selectively target androgen receptors on muscle and bone tissues.
“Selective androgen receptor modulators (SARMs) selectively target androgen receptors on muscle and bone tissues.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Myostatin is a contributor to muscle–adipose tissue crosstalk.
“myostatin is a contributor to muscle–adipose tissue crosstalk.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Myostatin is a member of the TGFβ superfamily and inhibits skeletal muscle growth and development.
“Myostatin is a member of the TGFβ superfamily and inhibits skeletal muscle growth and development.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Individuals with sarcopenia have elevated levels of myostatin, which is also expressed in adipose tissue.
“Individuals with sarcopenia have elevated levels of myostatin, which is also expressed in adipose tissue.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The development and progression of sarcopenic obesity is influenced by an interplay of multiple factors including ageing, inflammation, and lifestyle.
“The development and progression of this complex syndrome is influenced by an interplay of multiple factors including ageing, inflammation, lifestyle, among others.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The clinical implications of sarcopenic obesity span from physical impairments to elevated morbidity and mortality rates.
“The clinical implications of sarcopenic obesity span from physical impairments to elevated morbidity and mortality rates.”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The current definition of SO may not include adults exhibiting early signs of risk factors for SO, potentially delaying therapeutic or preventive interventions.
“Specifically, the current definition of SO may not include adults exhibiting early signs of risk factors for SO, potentially delaying therapeutic or preventive interventions [19, 20, 21, 22].”
From Sarcopenic Obesity Phenotype Index (SOP <i>i</i> ): A Population‐Based Study (2025) · cites this paper as [22]
The Screening section (page not provided) says that BMI, waist circumference and some questionnaires can fail to identify people at risk of sarcopenic obesity. The Introduction (page not provided) stresses that early detection and intervention are crucial. The paper does not specifically say that the current definition excludes adults with early risk factors or that this exclusion delays intervention; its stated concern is with screening limitations. (LLM, conf=0.82)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredProtein plays a central role in the preservation of lean body mass and a high protein diet exceeding 0.8 g protein/kg bodyweight/day is the best option to mitigate reduction in lean body mass.
“Protein plays a central role in the preservation of LBM and a high protein diet that exceeds the recommended 0.8 g protein/kg bodyweight/day is the best option to mitigate the reduction in LBM, with patients encouraged to increase their protein intake to maintain and recover muscle mass and function over the long term [51,59,73,74].”
From Application of nutrition interventions with GLP-1 based therapies: A narrative review of the challenges and solutions (2025) · cites this paper as [59]
Addressing physical inactivity through regular exercise can help preserve muscle mass and functionality.
“In addition to higher protein intake, addressing physical inactivity through regular exercise can further help to preserve muscle mass and functionality [49,54,59,74,78].”
From Application of nutrition interventions with GLP-1 based therapies: A narrative review of the challenges and solutions (2025) · cites this paper as [59]
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Self-citationMuscle tissue changes with aging
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“Consequently, the concept of ‘relative adequate muscle’ has been proposed for the clinical identification of sarcopenic obesity 2,3 , but additional research is needed.”
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- Authors
- Prado, C. M., Batsis, J. A., Donini, L. M., Gonzalez, M. C., & Siervo, M.
- Affiliations
- University of Alberta (CA)
- University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill (US)
- Sapienza University of Rome (IT)
- Curtin University (AU)
- Corresponding author
- Prado, Carla M.
- Venue
- Nature Reviews Endocrinology
- Published
- 2024-02-06
- Volume
- 20
- Issue
- 5
- Pages
- 261-277
- ISSN
- 1759-5029 (ISSN-L)
- 1759-5037
- PMC
- PMC12854800
- OpenAlex
- W4391577587
- Cited by
- 355
- References
- 234
- Citations by year
- 2026: 178 · 2025: 146 · 2024: 31
- FWCI
- 20.17
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- Licence
- Locations
- Nature Reviews Endocrinology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (acceptedVersion)
- IRIS Research product catalog (Sapienza University of Rome) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institute on Aging (R01AG077163)
- National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases (P30DK056350)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Physiology › Nutrition and Health in Aging
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Physiology › Body Composition Measurement Techniques
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Molecular Biology › Muscle Physiology and Disorders
- Keywords
- sarcopenic obesity, older adults, adipose tissue, geriatric syndromes, pathogenesis, inflammation, oxidative stress, hormonal changes, exercise therapy, nutritional therapy, pharmacotherapy, precision medicine, mortality, comorbidities
- MeSH terms
- Aged, Body Composition, Humans, Nutritional Status, Obesity, Exercise, Comorbidity, Sarcopenia
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