Neuroimaging for psychotherapy research: current trends.

“On the other hand, regions of the DMN typically show decreased activations during intentional performance of a wide range of tasks (Raichle et al., 2001).”

“Measurements often employ automated methods, such as voxel-based morphometry (VBM), for increased precision (a voxel is a three-dimensional volume element in an image, similar to a pixel element in a two-dimensional picture) (Ashburner & Friston, 2000).”

“Results showed that the regions were functionally connected to each other as well as to additional regions consistent with the DMN.”

“These studies are critical to a comprehensive understanding of the human connectome (Biswal et al., 2010; Raichle, 2011; Snyder & Raichle, 2012; Sporns et al., 2005).”

“Many regions of the DMN are involved in self-referential processing (i.e., what some investigators refer to as the “neural self”) as well as interpersonal function, episodic memory, future planning, and mind wandering (Buckner & Carroll, 2007; Doucet et al., 2012; Gusnard et al., 2001).”

“One of the most important efforts in current neuroscience is the investigation of connections and pathways for information to flow within the brain (Biswal et al., 2010; Raichle, 2011).”

“…network comprise some (not all) of the regions activated using emotion tasks, such as feelings of sadness induced from autobiographical scripts (Mayberg et al., 1999), viewing negative emotion pictures (Anand et al., 2005), or rating emotional words for personal relevance (Siegle et al., 2006,…”

“…within the anterior cingulate, and especially the subgenual anterior cingulate cortex, have been prominent in many studies of depression (e.g., Davey et al., 2012; Fox et al., 2012; Greicius et al., 2007; Mayberg et al., 1999; Sheline et al., 2010; Siegle et al., 2006, 2012; Vasic et al., 2009).”

“There is a large literature on neural mechanisms of emotion reappraisal; a meta-analysis of this work has recently appeared (Buhle et al., 2013) that highlights cognitive control regions (e.g., dorsomedial, dorsolateral, and ventrolateral prefrontal cortices; posterior parietal lobe) and the…”

“Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association, 57, 361–398. doi:10.1177/0003065109333502 Siniatchkin, M., Glatthaar, N., von Müller, G. G., PrehnKristensen, A., Wolff, S., Knöchel, S., … Gerber, W.-D. (2012).”

“Functional connectivity studies are also increasingly common in studies of mindfulness and meditation (e.g., Brewer et al., 2011; Jang et al., 2011; Josipovic et al., 2012; Kilpatrick et al., 2011).”

“Synchrony in interpersonal interactions had been observed by use of behavioral and physiological measures (Feldman, 2007; Feldman, Magori-Choehn, Galili, Singer, & Louzoun, 2011).”

“…also been prominent in studies of depression, including in studies of mechanisms of action of electroconvulsive therapy and transcranial magnetic stimulation treatments of depression (Fox et al., 2012; Perrin et al., 2012; Sheline et al., 2010; Siegle, Thompson, Carter, Steinhauer, & Thase, 2007).”

“Other studies have involved participants with stress or anxiety disorders (e.g., Farb et al., 2010; Goldin & Gross, 2010) or discussed the important topic of interventional strategies for prevention of psychological disorders (Tang et al., 2012).”

“…also been prominent in studies of depression, including in studies of mechanisms of action of electroconvulsive therapy and transcranial magnetic stimulation treatments of depression (Fox et al., 2012; Perrin et al., 2012; Sheline et al., 2010; Siegle, Thompson, Carter, Steinhauer, & Thase, 2007).”

“Connectivity changes within these networks via “top-down (cortico-thalamic, cortico-limbic) or bottom-up (thalamo-cortical, limbic-cortical)” mechanisms have been proposed as mediators of treatment effects (Mayberg, 2003, p. 196; Goldapple et al., 2004).”

“Regions in the cognitive control network include the anterior cingulate/pre-supplementary motor area and dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (Cole & Schneider, 2007).”

“Among these is a measure of cerebral metabolism that employs glucose analogs as labeled compounds, such as fluorodeoxyglucose (18FDG), with PET imaging to generate brain maps of regional cerebral glucose metabolism (Brody et al., 1998, 2001b; Goldapple et al., 2004).”

“…interbrain synchrony, such as synchronization of alpha-mu band EEG signals from parietal regions during a task of observing another’s hand movements (Dumas et al., 2010) and increased coherence of NIRS signals from the frontal regions of participants cooperating in a game (Cui et al., 2012).”

“…interbrain synchrony, such as synchronization of alpha-mu band EEG signals from parietal regions during a task of observing another’s hand movements (Dumas et al., 2010) and increased coherence of NIRS signals from the frontal regions of participants cooperating in a game (Cui et al., 2012).”

“However, it is now also being included in clinical psychotherapeutic programs, such as MBSR, dialectical behavior therapy (DBT), etc. (Hayes et al., 2011; Hofmann et al., 2010; Tables I and II).”

“Finally, a recent study of functional connectivity MRI in depression has been able to identify 100% of participants with depression and 89.7% of healthy controls using a machine learning algorithm to analyze resting state fMRI results (Zeng et al., 2012b).”

“…contributions to understanding depression (Hulvershorn, Cullen, & Anand, 2011; Murphy & Frodl, 2011; Sexton et al., 2012; Takeda, Tanaka, & Kudo, 2011), obsessive compulsive disorder (Fontenelle et al., 2009), and schizophrenia (Ellison-Wright & Bullmore, 2009; Whitford, Kubicki, & Shenton, 2011).”

“Until recently, several studies had shown consistent results of decreased resting blood flow or glucose metabolism in the right caudate after psychotherapy (Baxter et al., 1992; Linden, 2006; Nakatani et al., 2003; Schwartz et al., 1996).”

“One of the most important efforts in current neuroscience is the investigation of connections and pathways for information to flow within the brain (Biswal et al., 2010; Raichle, 2011).”

“…recent studies also have detected psychotherapyinduced structural changes in the brain, such as changes in volumetric measures (Eack et al., 2010; Holzel et al., 2010; Luders et al., 2012) or measures of white matter characteristics (Luders et al., 2011, 2012; Pardini et al., 2012; Tang et al.,…”

“One observation has been that many different kinds of psychotherapies can have quite similar outcomes, the so-called Dodo bird verdict (Luborsky et al., 2002).”

“An interesting feature of psychotherapy studies of OCD is that there are now five studies that used magnetic resonance spectroscopy to examine concentrations of neurochemicals as predictors of treatment outcome or measures of change after CBT treatments.”

“…of limited replication is Siegle et al.’s (2006) study of predictors of response to CBT treatments of depression that identified biomarkers in the subgenual cingulate and amygdala: Siegle et al. (2012) replicated the finding in the subgenual cingulate but not the amygdala (McGrath et al., 2013).”

“Deoxygenated hemoglobin has a magnetic property that can decrease nearby MRI signals (such as from protons of water molecules in blood vessels; Kim & Ogawa, 2012).”

“…2010; Brody et al., 2001a, 2001b; Goldapple et al., 2004; Konarski et al., 2009; Lindauer et al., 2005; McGrath et al., 2013) or functional changes in association with performance of a mental or behavioral task (Furmark et al., 2002; Lindauer et al., 2008; Penades et al., 2013; Peres et al., 2007).”

“Other studies have involved participants with stress or anxiety disorders (e.g., Farb et al., 2010; Goldin & Gross, 2010) or discussed the important topic of interventional strategies for prevention of psychological disorders (Tang et al., 2012).”

“…is a wealth of information from social cognitive neuroimaging that may be useful for psychotherapy researchers (Carhart-Harris et al., 2008; Fonagy & Target, 2007; Gallese et al., 2007; Hruby, Hasto, & Minarik, 2011; Northoff et al., 2007; Siever & Weinstein, 2009; Weston & Gabbard, 2002a, 2002b).”

“…comprise some (not all) of the regions activated using emotion tasks, such as feelings of sadness induced from autobiographical scripts (Mayberg et al., 1999), viewing negative emotion pictures (Anand et al., 2005), or rating emotional words for personal relevance (Siegle et al., 2006, 2012).”

“These intrinsic fluctuations actually constitute some 95% of an overall fMRI signal at any moment, while the task-associated increases (decreases) constitute only approximately 5% of the signal (Madden et al., 2009).”

“Neuroimaging results from psychotherapy research encompass a wide range of complex and, at times, inconsistent findings (e.g., Amsterdam et al., 2013; Linden, 2006; McGrath et al., 2013; Ritchey et al., 2011; Roffman et al., 2005).”

“…ontogeny of the self and interpersonal cognition, is focused on the role of mentalizing, mirroring, and the attachment system in psychotherapy mediated by way of the relationship between therapist and patient (Fonagy & Bateman, 2006; Gallese et al., 2007; Korner, Gerull, Meares, & Stevenson, 2006).”

“The earliest MRI studies of psychotherapy outcome used this BOLD fMRI approach (Paquette et al., 2003; Wykes et al., 2002).”

“Mapping brain connectivity shifts our attention from discrete brain regions to networks of brain regions that support psychological functioning and are involved in psychological dysfunction as well (Buckholtz & Meyer-Lindenberg, 2012; Fornito & Bullmore, 2012).”

“Earlier studies of interpersonal (Brody et al., 2001b) and CBT treatments (Goldapple et al., 2004; Kennedy et al., 2007) revealed decreased FDG-PET resting glucose metabolism in frontal cortical regions after treatment.”

“Another study of 6 weeks of MT in healthy participants showed that training led to increased dorsolateral prefrontal cortex activation during a Stroop task (Allen et al., 2012).”

“…of mindfulness or meditation approaches summarized in Table II have assessed effects in some participants after 2 to 4 weeks of training (Tang, Lu, Fan, Yang, & Posner, 2012) or 8 or more years (e.g., Luders, Clark, Narr, & Toga, 2011; Luders et al., 2012; Taylor et al., 2011; Wang et al., 2011).”

“Long-term treatments included 15 months of psychodynamic therapy of depression (Buchheim et al., 2012), 2 years of cognitive enhancement therapy of schizophrenia (Eack et al., 2010), and 6 years of treatment of autism (Pardini et al., 2012).”

“Functional connectivity studies are also increasingly common in studies of mindfulness and meditation (e.g., Brewer et al., 2011; Jang et al., 2011; Josipovic et al., 2012; Kilpatrick et al., 2011).”

“Many of the changes have been in the direction of normalization of neural function in brain regions that showed abnormalities before treatment (e.g., Dichter et al., 2009; Dichter, Felder, & Smoski, 2010; Fu et al., 2008; Ritchey et al., 2011).”

“Both Lutz et al. (2013) and Allen et al. (2012) described implications of their studies for MT in clinical treatments.”

“AD can reflect axonal features such as axon density, while decreases in RD indicate increased myelination (Tang et al., 2012).”

“, 2011), schizophrenia (Meyer-Lindenberg, 2010; Nenadic, Gaser, & Sauer, 2012), and borderline (Schmahl & Bremner, 2006), schizotypal (Hazlett, Goldstein, & Kolaitis, 2012), and psychopathy and antisocial (Gregory et al.”

“Structural connectivity: Diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) of white matter.”

“Neuroimaging results from psychotherapy research encompass a wide range of complex and, at times, inconsistent findings (e.g., Amsterdam et al., 2013; Linden, 2006; McGrath et al., 2013; Ritchey et al., 2011; Roffman et al., 2005).”

“Reviews of neuroimaging studies of psychotherapy outcome were given by Beauregard (2007), Frewen, Dozois, and Lanius (2008), Karlsson (2011), Linden (2006), and Roffman, Marci, Glick, Dougherty, and Rauch (2005).”

“Among these is a measure of cerebral metabolism that employs glucose analogs as labeled compounds, such as fluorodeoxyglucose (18FDG), with PET imaging to generate brain maps of regional cerebral glucose metabolism (Brody et al., 1998, 2001b; Goldapple et al., 2004).”

“Many of the changes have been in the direction of normalization of neural function in brain regions that showed abnormalities before treatment (e.g., Dichter et al., 2009; Dichter, Felder, & Smoski, 2010; Fu et al., 2008; Ritchey et al., 2011).”

“…2010; Buchheim et al., 2012; De Greck et al., 2011) and numerous investigations of cognitive behavioral types of treatments (e.g., Bor et al., 2011; Doehrmann et al., 2012; Hauner et al., 2012; Kircher et al., 2013; Klumpp, Fitzgerald, & Phan, 2013; Ritchey, Dolcos, Eddington, Strauman, & Cabeza,…”

“Many of these studies employed methods probing functional or structural connectivity (e.g., Jang et al., 2011; Josipovic et al., 2012; Tang et al., 2012).”

“Note is made if the study was included in reviews by (B) Beauregard (2007), (F) Frewen et al. (2008), (K) Karlsson (2011), (L) Linden (2006), (R) Roffman et al. (2005).”

“The default mode network is a network of brain regions with relatively greater activation when the individual is resting or not actively engaged in a specific task (Gusnard, Akbudak, Shulman, & Raichle, 2001; Snyder & Raichle, 2012).”

“However, it is now also being included in clinical psychotherapeutic programs, such as MBSR, dialectical behavior therapy (DBT), etc. (Hayes et al., 2011; Hofmann et al., 2010; Tables I and II).”

“…obsessive compulsive disorder (Pujol et al., 2011), schizophrenia (Meyer-Lindenberg, 2010; Nenadic, Gaser, & Sauer, 2012), and borderline (Schmahl & Bremner, 2006), schizotypal (Hazlett, Goldstein, & Kolaitis, 2012), and psychopathy and antisocial (Gregory et al., 2012) personality disorders.”

“An interesting feature of psychotherapy studies of OCD is that there are now five studies that used magnetic resonance spectroscopy to examine concentrations of neurochemicals as predictors of treatment outcome or measures of change after CBT treatments.”

“However, as Etkin et al. (2005) stated: “the biological study of psychotherapy has barely begun.””

“Long-term treatments included 15 months of psychodynamic therapy of depression (Buchheim et al., 2012), 2 years of cognitive enhancement therapy of schizophrenia (Eack et al., 2010), and 6 years of treatment of autism (Pardini et al., 2012).”

“This integrated perspective, which encompasses connectivity networks throughout the entire brain, is critical for an understanding of psychological disorders, developmental trajectories, treatments, and prevention (e.g., Perrin et al., 2012; Zeng et al., 2012a, 2012b).”

“Functional connectivity studies are beginning to appear in psychotherapy research, such as effects of cognitive treatments of schizophrenia (Kumari et al., 2009; Penades et al., 2013), panic disorder (Kircher et al., 2013), and fibromyalgia (Jensen et al., 2012).”

“Among these is a measure of cerebral metabolism that employs glucose analogs as labeled compounds, such as fluorodeoxyglucose (18FDG), with PET imaging to generate brain maps of regional cerebral glucose metabolism (Brody et al., 1998, 2001b; Goldapple et al., 2004).”

“…such as changes in volumetric measures (Eack et al., 2010; Holzel et al., 2010; Luders et al., 2012) or measures of white matter characteristics (Luders et al., 2011, 2012; Pardini et al., 2012; Tang et al., 2012), as well as regional changes in neurochemicals (O’Neill et al., 2012, 2013;…”

“Finally, one study has shown changes in both functional and structural connectivity networks after cognitive remediation therapy for schizophrenia (Penades et al., 2013).”

“…of limited replication is Siegle et al.’s (2006) study of predictors of response to CBT treatments of depression that identified biomarkers in the subgenual cingulate and amygdala: Siegle et al. (2012) replicated the finding in the subgenual cingulate but not the amygdala (McGrath et al., 2013).”

“…2011), obsessive compulsive disorder (Pujol et al., 2011), schizophrenia (Meyer-Lindenberg, 2010; Nenadic, Gaser, & Sauer, 2012), and borderline (Schmahl & Bremner, 2006), schizotypal (Hazlett, Goldstein, & Kolaitis, 2012), and psychopathy and antisocial (Gregory et al., 2012) personality…”

“…there is a wealth of information from social cognitive neuroimaging that may be useful for psychotherapy researchers (Carhart-Harris et al., 2008; Fonagy & Target, 2007; Gallese et al., 2007; Hruby, Hasto, & Minarik, 2011; Northoff et al., 2007; Siever & Weinstein, 2009; Weston & Gabbard, 2002a,…”

“DTI studies are making important contributions to understanding depression (Hulvershorn, Cullen, & Anand, 2011; Murphy & Frodl, 2011; Sexton et al., 2012; Takeda, Tanaka, & Kudo, 2011), obsessive compulsive disorder (Fontenelle et al., 2009), and schizophrenia (Ellison-Wright & Bullmore, 2009;…”

“…is a wealth of information from social cognitive neuroimaging that may be useful for psychotherapy researchers (Carhart-Harris et al., 2008; Fonagy & Target, 2007; Gallese et al., 2007; Hruby, Hasto, & Minarik, 2011; Northoff et al., 2007; Siever & Weinstein, 2009; Weston & Gabbard, 2002a, 2002b).”

“Another way to understand this finding is to note that connectivity studies of the brain have identified a negative correlation between the default mode network, subserving interpersonal and self-referential processing, and the cognitive control network (Fox et al., 2005, 2012; Vasic et al., 2009).”

“For example, brain responses to two-dimensional representations can differ from responses to actual threedimensional objects and this may be true for persons as well (Snow et al., 2011).”

“Numerous functionally connected networks are being identified and examined throughout the brain (e.g., Buckholtz & Meyer-Lindenberg, 2012; Lenglet et al., 2012; Raichle, 2011; Shirer, Ryali, Rykhlevskaia, Menon, & Greicius, 2012; Zeng et al., 2012b).”

“Buchheim et al. (2008) have investigated the attachment system, important in some psychological disorders and psychotherapy treatments, in borderline personality disorder.”

“Many of these studies employed methods probing functional or structural connectivity (e.g., Jang et al., 2011; Josipovic et al., 2012; Tang et al., 2012).”

“…is a wealth of information from social cognitive neuroimaging that may be useful for psychotherapy researchers (Carhart-Harris et al., 2008; Fonagy & Target, 2007; Gallese et al., 2007; Hruby, Hasto, & Minarik, 2011; Northoff et al., 2007; Siever & Weinstein, 2009; Weston & Gabbard, 2002a, 2002b).”

“…I characterizing resting-state brain function (Apostolova et al., 2010; Brody et al., 2001a, 2001b; Goldapple et al., 2004; Konarski et al., 2009; Lindauer et al., 2005; McGrath et al., 2013) or functional changes in association with performance of a mental or behavioral task (Furmark et al.,…”

“…2011) and numerous investigations of cognitive behavioral types of treatments (e.g., Bor et al., 2011; Doehrmann et al., 2012; Hauner et al., 2012; Kircher et al., 2013; Klumpp, Fitzgerald, & Phan, 2013; Ritchey, Dolcos, Eddington, Strauman, & Cabeza, 2011; Siniatchkin et al., 2012; Yoshimura et…”

“…such as studies in Table I characterizing resting-state brain function (Apostolova et al., 2010; Brody et al., 2001a, 2001b; Goldapple et al., 2004; Konarski et al., 2009; Lindauer et al., 2005; McGrath et al., 2013) or functional changes in association with performance of a mental or behavioral…”

“, depression (Andreescu et al., 2008; Kempton et al., 2011), obsessive compulsive disorder (Pujol et al.”

“These include studies of psychodynamic psychotherapy (Beutel et al., 2010; Buchheim et al., 2012; De Greck et al., 2011) and numerous investigations of cognitive behavioral types of treatments (e.g., Bor et al., 2011; Doehrmann et al., 2012; Hauner et al., 2012; Kircher et al., 2013; Klumpp,…”

“AAC = augmentative and alternative communication therapy, ACT = acceptance and commitment therapy, BAT = behavioral activation therapy, BEP = brief eclectic psychotherapy, BT = behavioral therapy, CBT = cognitive or cognitive behavioral therapy, CET = cognitive enhancement therapy, CI = cognitive intervention, CR = co…”

“…2010; Brody et al., 2001a, 2001b; Goldapple et al., 2004; Konarski et al., 2009; Lindauer et al., 2005; McGrath et al., 2013) or functional changes in association with performance of a mental or behavioral task (Furmark et al., 2002; Lindauer et al., 2008; Penades et al., 2013; Peres et al., 2007).”

“…imaging in psychotherapy research has included several studies of regional brain volumes as predictors of response to cognitive therapies for PTSD (Bryant et al., 2008b), schizophrenia (Keshavan et al., 2011; Premkumar et al., 2009), and obsessive compulsive disorder (Hoexter et al., 2012, 2013).”

“Until recently, several studies had shown consistent results of decreased resting blood flow or glucose metabolism in the right caudate after psychotherapy (Baxter et al., 1992; Linden, 2006; Nakatani et al., 2003; Schwartz et al., 1996).”

“…of depression, multiple brain regions have shown changes after psychotherapy treatments for OCD and some studies indicated change in the direction of normalization of neural function of some brain regions (Freyer et al., 2011; Huyser, Veltman, Wolters, Haan, & Boer, 2010; Nabeyama et al., 2008).”

“Ultimately, to gain a solid neurocognitive understanding of interpersonal interactions it will be necessary to conduct brain imaging research on both (or more) persons simultaneously in the midst of real-time interactions (Dumas, 2011; Schilback et al., 2006).”

“…2010; Brody et al., 2001a, 2001b; Goldapple et al., 2004; Konarski et al., 2009; Lindauer et al., 2005; McGrath et al., 2013) or functional changes in association with performance of a mental or behavioral task (Furmark et al., 2002; Lindauer et al., 2008; Penades et al., 2013; Peres et al., 2007).”

“(2009) investigated neurocognitive systems involved in personal promotion and prevention goals, which are critical to self-regulation and function and are important constructs in some theories of depression and in self-system therapy for depression (Strauman, 2002).”

“…imaging in psychotherapy research has included several studies of regional brain volumes as predictors of response to cognitive therapies for PTSD (Bryant et al., 2008b), schizophrenia (Keshavan et al., 2011; Premkumar et al., 2009), and obsessive compulsive disorder (Hoexter et al., 2012, 2013).”

“…of mindfulness or meditation approaches summarized in Table II have assessed effects in some participants after 2 to 4 weeks of training (Tang, Lu, Fan, Yang, & Posner, 2012) or 8 or more years (e.g., Luders, Clark, Narr, & Toga, 2011; Luders et al., 2012; Taylor et al., 2011; Wang et al., 2011).”

“Mapping brain connectivity shifts our attention from discrete brain regions to networks of brain regions that support psychological functioning and are involved in psychological dysfunction as well (Buckholtz & Meyer-Lindenberg, 2012; Fornito & Bullmore, 2012).”

“A study of CBT treatment of panic disorder observed that task-based functional connectivity, between the inferior frontal gyrus and amygdala, insula, and anterior cingulate regions, was increased in patients versus healthy controls although it did not change after treatment (Kircher et al., 2013).”

“For example, changes in serotonin receptor binding have been examined after psychotherapy treatments for depression (Amsterdam et al., 2013; Hirvonen et al., 2011; Karlsson et al., 2010; Lehto et al., 2008a, 2008b).”

“…is a wealth of information from social cognitive neuroimaging that may be useful for psychotherapy researchers (Carhart-Harris et al., 2008; Fonagy & Target, 2007; Gallese et al., 2007; Hruby, Hasto, & Minarik, 2011; Northoff et al., 2007; Siever & Weinstein, 2009; Weston & Gabbard, 2002a, 2002b).”

“Many regions of the DMN are involved in self-referential processing (i.e., what some investigators refer to as the “neural self”) as well as interpersonal function, episodic memory, future planning, and mind wandering (Buckner & Carroll, 2007; Doucet et al., 2012; Gusnard et al., 2001).”

“However, the strength of functional connectivity can be an index of the integrity of anatomical connections such as white matter tracts as well as the approximate neural “pathways” by which two regions could be functionally associated during task performance or at rest (Horwitz et al., 2005).”

“…of depression, multiple brain regions have shown changes after psychotherapy treatments for OCD and some studies indicated change in the direction of normalization of neural function of some brain regions (Freyer et al., 2011; Huyser, Veltman, Wolters, Haan, & Boer, 2010; Nabeyama et al., 2008).”

“For example, changes in serotonin receptor binding have been examined after psychotherapy treatments for depression (Amsterdam et al., 2013; Hirvonen et al., 2011; Karlsson et al., 2010; Lehto et al., 2008a, 2008b).”

“DTI studies are making important contributions to understanding depression (Hulvershorn, Cullen, & Anand, 2011; Murphy & Frodl, 2011; Sexton et al., 2012; Takeda, Tanaka, & Kudo, 2011), obsessive compulsive disorder (Fontenelle et al., 2009), and schizophrenia (Ellison-Wright & Bullmore, 2009;…”

“Some treatments were as short as single sessions for treatment of phobias (e.g., Hauner et al., 2012; Schienle, Schäfer, Stark, & Vaitl, 2009).”

“…of mindfulness or meditation approaches summarized in Table II have assessed effects in some participants after 2 to 4 weeks of training (Tang, Lu, Fan, Yang, & Posner, 2012) or 8 or more years (e.g., Luders, Clark, Narr, & Toga, 2011; Luders et al., 2012; Taylor et al., 2011; Wang et al., 2011).”

“…(Beutel et al., 2010; Buchheim et al., 2012; De Greck et al., 2011) and numerous investigations of cognitive behavioral types of treatments (e.g., Bor et al., 2011; Doehrmann et al., 2012; Hauner et al., 2012; Kircher et al., 2013; Klumpp, Fitzgerald, & Phan, 2013; Ritchey, Dolcos, Eddington,…”

“…CBT treatment of psychosis was assessed using a threatening facial expression task and showed decreased activation of a network of brain regions (e.g., inferior frontal, insula, thalamus, putamen, occipital) involved in processing negative facial expressions after treatment (Kumari et al., 2011).”

“…is a wealth of information from social cognitive neuroimaging that may be useful for psychotherapy researchers (Carhart-Harris et al., 2008; Fonagy & Target, 2007; Gallese et al., 2007; Hruby, Hasto, & Minarik, 2011; Northoff et al., 2007; Siever & Weinstein, 2009; Weston & Gabbard, 2002a, 2002b).”

“Cognitive therapies have also been employed to improve social cognitive functioning and at least one neuroimaging study has shown that increased cortical surface area and gray matter volume (cortical reserve) predicted faster social-cognitive improvement (Keshavan et al., 2011).”

“…of Resonating Minds Theory (RMT) and the Therapeutic Cycles Model (TCM), which describe models for within-session (or across sessions) process and therapeutic changes that are focused on patient-therapist interactions (McCarthy, Mergenthaler, Schneider, & Grenyer, 2011; Mergenthaler, 2008).”

“Finally, a recent study of functional connectivity MRI in depression has been able to identify 100% of participants with depression and 89.7% of healthy controls using a machine learning algorithm to analyze resting state fMRI results (Zeng et al., 2012b).”

“Kessler et al. (2011) and Loughead et al. (2010) probed neural systems involved in processing of interpersonal relationship patterns and autobiographical interpersonal memories, central to understanding self and interpersonal schema, therapeutic alliance, and conduct of many types of psychotherapy,…”

“…factor interventions on average rated sessions as less helpful when more CBT interventions were employed” and “using some techniques (i.e., CBT) in the context of a treatment that is highly focused on relationship factors may interfere with therapeutic impact” (Boswell et al., 2010, pp. 717, 722).”

“…Perrin et al., 2012; Sheline et al., 2010; Zeng et al., 2012a, 2012b), obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD) (Stern, Fitzgerald, Welsh, Abelson, & Taylor, 2012), schizophrenia (Calhoun, Eichele, & Pearson, 2009; Lynall et al., 2010; Salomon et al., 2011), and autism (Schipul, Keller, & Just, 2011).”

“For example, changes in serotonin receptor binding have been examined after psychotherapy treatments for depression (Amsterdam et al., 2013; Hirvonen et al., 2011; Karlsson et al., 2010; Lehto et al., 2008a, 2008b).”

“The ability to perform fMRI hyperscanning of two persons has revealed that regions of the reward system, specifically the left caudate and putamen, were activated during cooperation between two persons (Krill & Platek, 2012).”

“…within the anterior cingulate, and especially the subgenual anterior cingulate cortex, have been prominent in many studies of depression (e.g., Davey et al., 2012; Fox et al., 2012; Greicius et al., 2007; Mayberg et al., 1999; Sheline et al., 2010; Siegle et al., 2006, 2012; Vasic et al.,…”

“However, Apostolova et al. (2010) have since described increased glucose metabolism in the right caudate after CBT.”

“Long-term treatments included 15 months of psychodynamic therapy of depression (Buchheim et al., 2012), 2 years of cognitive enhancement therapy of schizophrenia (Eack et al., 2010), and 6 years of treatment of autism (Pardini et al., 2012).”

“, 2011) and numerous investigations of cognitive behavioral types of treatments (e.g., Bor et al., 2011; Doehrmann et al., 2012; Hauner et al., 2012; Kircher et al., 2013; Klumpp, Fitzgerald, & Phan, 2013; Ritchey, Dolcos, Eddington, Strauman, & Cabeza, 2011; Siniatchkin et al., 2012; Yoshimura et al., 2013).”

“Eddington, Dolcos, Cabeza, Krishnan, and Strauman (2007) and Eddington et al. (2009) investigated neurocognitive systems involved in personal promotion and prevention goals, which are critical to self-regulation and function and are important constructs in some theories of depression and in…”

“These include studies of psychodynamic psychotherapy (Beutel et al., 2010; Buchheim et al., 2012; De Greck et al., 2011) and numerous investigations of cognitive behavioral types of treatments (e.g., Bor et al., 2011; Doehrmann et al., 2012; Hauner et al., 2012; Kircher et al., 2013; Klumpp,…”

“A few examples of results from each study are presented. psychological disorder being treated (Premkumar et al., 2009).”

“The vast majority of studies have assessed cognitive or behavioral therapies (e.g., Amsterdam, Newberg, Newman, Shults, & Wintering, 2013; Hauner, Mineak, Voss, & Paller, 2012; Hoexter et al., 2012, 2013; McGrath et al., 2013; O’Neill et al., 2012, 2013; Penades et al., 2013).”

“Kessler et al. (2011) and Loughead et al. (2010) probed neural systems involved in processing of interpersonal relationship patterns and autobiographical interpersonal memories, central to understanding self and interpersonal schema, therapeutic alliance, and conduct of many types of psychotherapy,…”

“…al., 2010; Holzel et al., 2010; Luders et al., 2012) or measures of white matter characteristics (Luders et al., 2011, 2012; Pardini et al., 2012; Tang et al., 2012), as well as regional changes in neurochemicals (O’Neill et al., 2012, 2013; Whiteside et al., 2012a, 2012b; Zurowski et al., 2012).”

“…al., 2010; Holzel et al., 2010; Luders et al., 2012) or measures of white matter characteristics (Luders et al., 2011, 2012; Pardini et al., 2012; Tang et al., 2012), as well as regional changes in neurochemicals (O’Neill et al., 2012, 2013; Whiteside et al., 2012a, 2012b; Zurowski et al., 2012).”

“…al., 2010; Holzel et al., 2010; Luders et al., 2012) or measures of white matter characteristics (Luders et al., 2011, 2012; Pardini et al., 2012; Tang et al., 2012), as well as regional changes in neurochemicals (O’Neill et al., 2012, 2013; Whiteside et al., 2012a, 2012b; Zurowski et al., 2012).”

“For instance, from a cognitive perspective the therapist (and the interaction itself) can be viewed as a “priming” mechanism that triggers habitual information processing such that the therapist and patient can observe its immediate consequences and analyze them (Merrill & Strauman, 2004).”

“This is a fundamentally new perspective because psychotherapy research to date has only considered the patient’s brain as the locus of therapeutic effects (Etkin et al., 2005; Beauregard, 2014; Weingarten and Strauman, 2015).”

“Neuroimaging, EEG, and advances in cognitive assessment should be harnessed in order to demonstrate how CBT changes cognition, behavior and the brain (Cabrera et al., 2016; Verdejo-Garcia, 2016; Weingarten & Strauman, 2015).”

“Neuroimaging techniques have been used with relative success in an attempt to shed light on the neurobiological correlates of diverse psychotherapies (Linden, 2006; Abbass et al., 2014; Weingarten and Strauman, 2015).”

“Clinical neuroscience is also shifting from studying discrete brain regions to mapping the connectivity of neural circuits that might be implicated across psychological disorders, using a functional network perspective (Weingarten & Strauman, 2015).”