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Cognition and Depression: Current Status and Future Directions
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Cognitive theories of depression posit that people's thoughts, inferences, attitudes, and interpretations, and the way in which they attend to and recall information, can increase their risk for depression. Three mechanisms have been implicated in the relation between biased cognitive processing and the dysregulation of emotion in depression: inhibitory processes and deficits in working memory, ruminative responses to negative mood states and negative life events, and the inability to use positive and rewarding stimuli to regulate negative mood. In this review, we present a contemporary characterization of depressive cognition and discuss how different cognitive processes are related not only to each other, but also to emotion dysregulation, the hallmark feature of depression. We conclude that depression is characterized by increased elaboration of negative information, by difficulties disengaging from negative material, and by deficits in cognitive control when processing negative information. We discuss treatment implications of these conclusions and argue that the study of cognitive aspects of depression must be broadened by investigating neural and genetic factors that are related to cognitive dysfunction in this disorder. Such integrative investigations should help us gain a more comprehensive understanding of how cognitive and biological factors interact to affect the onset, maintenance, and course of depression.
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“Such neural network alterations are posited to contribute to impaired regulatory control of stimulus-driven affective processing 7,45 , producing rigid negative biases evident across a wide range of implicit information processing domains (e.g., negative appraisals of self, the environment, and the future 46 ; preferential attention and memory for negative stimuli 45,47 ).”
From Neuroplasticity in cognitive and psychological mechanisms of depression: an integrative model (2020) · cites this paper as [45]
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“Attention, which acts as an initial filter on the information entering conscious awareness, shows valence-specific alterations in depressed patients including attentional preference for dysphoric stimuli and biases away from positive stimuli 45,47,83 .”
From Neuroplasticity in cognitive and psychological mechanisms of depression: an integrative model (2020) · cites this paper as [45]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
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“These functional abnormalities might underlie the increased sensitivity to negative emotional stimuli and the difficulty in disengaging from them, which is contained in the construct of negative bias in depression (58,59).”
From Relation Between Structural and Functional Connectivity in Major Depressive Disorder (2013) · cites this paper as [59]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
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“major depression is characterized by a strong disturbance in WM (Banich et al., 2009; Foland-Ross & Gotlib, 2012; Gotlib & Joormann, 2010; Joormann, 2018; Kaiser et al., 2015).”
From Baseline-dependent effect of dopamine’s precursor L-tyrosine on working memory gating but not updating (2020) · cites this paper as Gotlib & Joormann, 2010
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“Additionally, we used a multidimensional approach to evaluate trial outcomes; symptom assessments were complemented with evaluation of change in subjective mental health behaviors and quality of life, as well as change in objective measures of neuro-cognition that are impacted in depression [31–37].”
From Personalized machine learning guided intervention for optimizing lifestyle behaviors in depression: a pilot study (2026) · cites this paper as [31]
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“Notably, while depression can be associated with cognitive deficits [31–37]”
From Personalized machine learning guided intervention for optimizing lifestyle behaviors in depression: a pilot study (2026) · cites this paper as [31]
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“Cognitive reappraisal is correlated with adaptive outcomes, such as lower depression [25]”
From Effects of Mindfulness and Life-Skills Training on Emotion Regulation and Anxiety Symptoms in Chinese Migrant Children: A Randomized Controlled Trial. (2024) · cites this paper as [25]
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“It is different to expression suppression, which implies an intentional inhibition of behaviors associated with negative emotions [25].”
From Effects of Mindfulness and Life-Skills Training on Emotion Regulation and Anxiety Symptoms in Chinese Migrant Children: A Randomized Controlled Trial. (2024) · cites this paper as [25]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredIn the citing paper
“This blunted signal in attention-related brain areas during switching in MDD may underlie the previously outlined increased switch-related response latencies at a behavioral level in this group, and putatively reflect deficits in attention control at the clinical level of this disorder [58].”
From Cognitive inflexibility in obsessive-compulsive disorder and major depression is associated with distinct neural correlates (2013) · cites this paper as [58]
In the citing paper
“In parallel, acute stress has been shown to trigger affective and cognitive changes similar to biased information processing characteristic to depression (Gotlib and Joormann, 2010).”
From The interplay between stress, inflammation, and emotional attention: relevance for depression (2019) · cites this paper as Gotlib and Joormann, 2010
In the citing paper
“Investigations of cognition-emotion interactions have revealed that cognitive deficits, such as problems with memory and attention, are common during depressive episodes (Gotlib and Joormann 2010; Levin et al. 2007).”
From Executive Function Deficits in Daily Life Prospectively Predict Increases in Depressive Symptoms (2014) · cites this paper as Gotlib and Joormann 2010
In the citing paper
“Once considered an epiphenomenon of depression (Austin et al. 2001), it has been suggested that EF deficits play an active role in depressive episodes (Gotlib and Joormann 2010).”
From Executive Function Deficits in Daily Life Prospectively Predict Increases in Depressive Symptoms (2014) · cites this paper as Gotlib and Joormann 2010
In the citing paper
“A large body of research, largely utilizing the Dot Probe56 or Emotional Stroop Task57 has shown that depressed patients tend to spend more time attending to negative information, such as sad faces than neutral or positive information (for review see refs. 58,59).”
From Paying attention to attention in depression (2019) · cites this paper as [58]
In the citing paper
“Generally speaking, depressed patients’ attention tends to linger longer on negative information such as sad faces than healthy controls do, which suggests a negative bias in the way that depressed individuals sample information from their environments.”
From Paying attention to attention in depression (2019) · cites this paper as [58]
In the citing paper
“Likewise, self-reports are affected by recall bias. In other words, depressed patients have been found to alter the content of past experiences when asked to retrieve them retrospectively [8,9], judging symptoms as more severe [10] or increasing the elaboration of negative information [11].”
From Current state and future directions of technology-based ecological momentary assessment and intervention for major depressive disorder: a systematic review (2019) · cites this paper as [11]
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Schmeichel, B. J., & Tang, D. (2015) · Current Directions in Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/0963721414555178 · Cited by 228
Frontostriatal functional connectivity in major depressive disorder
Furman, D. J., Hamilton, J. P., & Gotlib, I. H. (2011) · Biology of Mood & Anxiety Disorders · doi:10.1186/2045-5380-1-11 · Cited by 208
Self-citationConcurrent cognitive control training augments the antidepressant efficacy of tDCS: A pilot study
Segrave, R. A., Arnold, S., Hoy, K., & Fitzgerald, P. B. (2014) · Brain Stimulation · doi:10.1016/j.brs.2013.12.008 · Cited by 244
Brunoni, A. R., Boggio, P. S., Raedt, R. D., Benseñor, I. M., Lotufo, P. A., Namur, V., Valiengo, L. D. C. L., & Vanderhasselt, M. (2014) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2014.03.026 · Cited by 226
A neurobiological approach to the cognitive deficits of psychiatric disorders
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Foland-Ross, L. C., & Gotlib, I. H. (2012) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2012.00489 · Cited by 197
Self-citationThe interplay between stress, inflammation, and emotional attention: relevance for depression
Maydych, V. (2019) · Frontiers in Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnins.2019.00384 · Cited by 193
Chaves, C., Lopez-Gomez, I., Hervas, G., & Vazquez, C. (2017) · Cognitive Therapy and Research · doi:10.1007/s10608-016-9778-9 · Cited by 196
Andrews-Hanna, J. R., Kaiser, R. H., Turner, A. E. J., Reineberg, A. E., Godinez, D., Dimidjian, S., & Banich, M. T. (2013) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00900 · Cited by 184
“Depressed individuals also exhibit attentional and mnemonic biases toward negative and self-referential information, difficulties clearing this information from working memory, and impaired performance particularly when the material is task-irrelevant (Gotlib and Joormann, 2010; Joormann, 2010).”
BackgroundColombo, D., Fernández-Álvarez, J., Patané, A., Semonella, M., Kwiatkowska, M., García-Palacios, A., Cipresso, P., Riva, G., & Botella, C. (2019) · Journal of Clinical Medicine · doi:10.3390/jcm8040465 · Cited by 194
Crocker, L. D., Heller, W., Warren, S. L., O'Hare, A. J., Infantolino, Z. P., & Miller, G. A. (2013) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2013.00261 · Cited by 193
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Implicit cognition and depression: A meta-analysis
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Walk on the bright side: Physical activity and affect in major depressive disorder.
Mata, J., Thompson, R. J., Jaeggi, S. M., Buschkuehl, M., Jonides, J., & Gotlib, I. H. (2012) · Journal of Abnormal Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0023533 · Cited by 191
“Because these constructs have been found to be aberrant in depressed individuals (e.g., Gotlib & Joormann, 2010; Phillips, Hine, & Thorsteinsson, 2010 for reviews), improving functioning in these domains might have a stronger and more sustained influence on affect in MDD than in control…”
BackgroundSelf-citationThe role of affective control in emotion regulation during adolescence
Schweizer, S., Gotlib, I. H., & Blakemore, S.-J. (2020) · Emotion · doi:10.1037/emo0000695 · Cited by 199
“…suppression, and reappraisal, where excessive rumination reflects difficulties with the inhibition of repetitive, perseverative negative thinking (Gotlib & Joormann, 2010); emotion suppression involves affective inhibition of affective states or expressions (Chervonsky & Hunt, 2017); and…”
BackgroundSelf-citationBeevers, C. G., Clasen, P. C., Enock, P. M., & Schnyer, D. M. (2015) · Journal of Abnormal Psychology · doi:10.1037/abn0000049 · Cited by 192
Chen, C., Nakagawa, S., An, Y., Ito, K., Kitaichi, Y., & Kusumi, I. (2016) · Frontiers in Neuroendocrinology · doi:10.1016/j.yfrne.2016.12.001 · Cited by 209
Tietz, A., Zietlow, A., & Reck, C. (2014) · Archives of Women s Mental Health · doi:10.1007/s00737-014-0423-x · Cited by 188
Demeyer, I., Lissnyder, E. D., Koster, E. H. W., & Raedt, R. D. (2012) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.brat.2012.02.012 · Cited by 204
Metadata
- Authors
- Gotlib, I. H., & Joormann, J.
- Affiliations
- Stanford University (US)
- University of Miami (US)
- Venue
- Annual Review of Clinical Psychology
- Publisher
- Annual Reviews
- Published
- 2010-03-01
- Volume
- 6
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 285-312
- ISSN
- 1548-5943 (ISSN-L)
- 1548-5951
- PMC
- PMC2845726
- OpenAlex
- W2110004174
- Cited by
- 2,420
- References
- 179
- Citations by year
- 2026: 162 · 2025: 174 · 2024: 163 · 2023: 161 · 2022: 164 · 2021: 184 · 2020: 151 · 2019: 191 · 2018: 155 · 2017: 196 · 2016: 154 · 2015: 161 · 2014: 128 · 2013: 107 · 2012: 83
- FWCI
- 10.53
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- europepmc.org
- Locations
- Annual Review of Clinical Psychology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (acceptedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institute of Mental Health (R01MH074849, R01MH059259)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive Processes
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neural and Behavioral Psychology Studies
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Pharmacology (medical) › Treatment of Major Depression
- Keywords
- depression, cognitive theories of depression, depressive cognitions, emotional dysregulation, cognitive control, rumination, working memory deficits, inhibitory processes, reward processing, therapeutic implications, genetic factors, neural factors
- MeSH terms
- Cognition Disorders, Depressive Disorder, Major, Major Depressive Disorder, Humans, Life Change Events, Mental Processes, Neuropsychological Tests, Psychological Theory, Severity of Illness Index, Prevalence
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