Selective attention and emotional vulnerability: Assessing the causal basis of their association through the experimental manipulation of attentional bias.

MacLeod, Colin; Rutherford, Elizabeth; Campbell, Lyn; Ebsworthy, Greg; Holker, Lin

doi:10.1037/0021-843x.111.1.107

Cited by 1,334Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive ProcessesNeural and Behavioral Psychology StudiesChild and Adolescent Psychosocial and Emotional Development

The DOI matches its Crossref record; 50 of the 50 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.

Selective attention and emotional vulnerability: Assessing the causal basis of their association through the experimental manipulation of attentional bias.

MacLeod, Colin, Rutherford, Elizabeth, Campbell, Lyn, Ebsworthy, Greg, Holker, Lin·2002·Journal of Abnormal Psychology

DOI 10.1037/0021-843x.111.1.107

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Abstract

Although it is well-established that vulnerability to negative emotion is associated with attentional bias toward aversive information, the causal basis of this association remains undetermined. Two studies addressed this issue by experimentally inducing differential attentional responses to emotional stimuli using a modified dot probe task, and then examining the impact of such attentional manipulation on subsequent emotional vulnerability. The results supported the hypothesis that the induction of attentional bias should serve to modify emotional vulnerability, as revealed by participants' emotional reactions to a final standardized stress task. These findings provide a sound empirical basis for the previously speculative proposal that attentional bias can causally mediate emotional vulnerability, and they suggest the possibility that cognitive-experimental procedures designed to modify selective information processing may have potential therapeutic value.

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An initial study found that subliminal ABM training did not induce attentional changes to threatening stimuli.
“An initial study found that subliminal ABM training did not induce attentional changes to threatening stimuli (MacLeod, Rutherford, Campbell, Ebsworthy, 2002).”
From Advancing the treatment of anxiety disorders in transition‐age youth: a review of the therapeutic effects of unconscious exposure. (2025) · cites this paper as MacLeod, Rutherford, Campbell, Ebsworthy, 2002
When attention is trained toward negative cues, people report greater distress in response to a laboratory stressor.
“Also, training attentional bias towards negative stimuli increases self-reported distress to a laboratory stressor (MacLeod, Rutherford, Campbell, Ebsworthy, & Holker, 2002)”
From Attentional bias and emotional reactivity as predictors and moderators of behavioral treatment for social phobia (2013) · cites this paper as MacLeod, Rutherford, Campbell, Ebsworthy, & Holker, 2002
Selective biases in attention can be modified by a simple computerized technique.
“Selective biases in attention can be modified by a simple computerized technique; the Attention Bias Modification task (ABM), pioneered by Colin MacLeod et al. [19]”
From Acceptance and Commitment Therapy preceded by an experimental Attention Bias Modification procedure in recurrent depression: Study protocol for a randomized controlled trial (2018) · cites this paper as [19]
Simple computer-based cognitive bias training tasks alter processing biases in non-clinical and clinical groups.
“These simple, computer-based training tasks have been found to alter processing biases (eg, in attention) in both non-clinical (Browning et al, 2010b; MacLeod et al, 2002) and clinical groups (Amir et al, 2009)”
From Using an Experimental Medicine Model to Explore Combination Effects of Pharmacological and Cognitive Interventions for Depression and Anxiety (2011) · cites this paper as MacLeod et al, 2002
Positive cognitive bias training on its own produced relatively positive changes in emotional bias.
“In line with previous work, both citalopram (Harmer et al, 2004; Murphy et al, 2009) and positive cognitive bias training (Browning et al, 2010b; MacLeod et al, 2002) on their own produced relatively positive changes in emotional bias, consistent with the idea that this may be a common process in treatments of emotional disorders (Harmer, 2008).”
From Using an Experimental Medicine Model to Explore Combination Effects of Pharmacological and Cognitive Interventions for Depression and Anxiety (2011) · cites this paper as MacLeod et al, 2002

After promising preclinical studies, first successful clinical applications of attentional bias modification have been reported in targeted prevention and in clinically anxious patient groups, with maintenance of clinical improvement four months after training.
“After promising preclinical studies (MacLeod et al., 2002), first successful clinical applications have been reported in targeted prevention (See et al., 2009) and in clinically anxious patient groups (Amir et al., 2009;Schmidt et al., 2009), and targeted prevention (See et al., 2009) with maintenance of clinical improvement reported four months after the training (Schmidt et al., 2009).”
From Addiction, adolescence, and the integration of control and motivation (2011) · cites this paper as MacLeod et al., 2002
Inducing a negative attentional bias in healthy participants increases anxiety.
“inducing a negative attentional bias in healthy participants increases anxiety (4)”
From Lateral prefrontal cortex mediates the cognitive modification of attentional bias (2010) · cites this paper as [4]
Training attention toward threat in non-avoidant populations has been found to increase rather than decrease anxiety in both adults and children.
“Thus, not only is exposure ineffective for those who are negatively biased, training attention toward threat in non-avoidant populations has also been found to increase rather than decrease anxiety in both adults and children [41,43,44].”
From Can mindfulness be too much of a good thing? The value of a middle way (2019) · cites this paper as [43]
Attention bias modification (ABM) is a computer-delivered treatment for anxiety that emerged from research in experimental psychopathology.
“One such potential intervention is attention bias modification (ABM), a computer-delivered treatment for anxiety that emerged from research in experimental psychopathology (MacLeod & Mathews, 2012;MacLeod, Rutherford, Campbell, Ebsworthy, & Holker, 2002).”
From Anxiety and attention to threat: cognitive mechanisms and treatment with attention bias modification (2016) · cites this paper as MacLeod et al., 2002
These differing views point to a potential limitation of ABM-threat-avoidance training which focuses on modifying an automatic bias in initial orienting to threat, rather than other attention mechanisms such as top-down attention control which may support emotion regulation and resilience to anxiety.
“These differing views point to a potential limitation of ABM-threat-avoidance training which focuses on modifying an automatic bias in initial orienting to threat (MacLeod et al., 2002), rather than other attention mechanisms such as top-down attention control which may support emotion regulation and resilience to anxiety (e.g., Derryberry & Rothbart, 1997).”
From Anxiety and attention to threat: cognitive mechanisms and treatment with attention bias modification (2016) · cites this paper as MacLeod et al., 2002

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“generally, we argue that experimental manipulations of processes can yield insight into causal relations of relatively stable inter-individual differences in these processes (e.g. Maltese, Baumert, Schmitt, & MacLeod, 2016; MacLeod et al., 2002).”
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“Consistent with the findings of MacLeod et al. (2002), participants in the AMP condition showed significantly less attention bias to threat after training relative to the ACC group.”
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Components of attentional bias to threat in high trait anxiety: Facilitated engagement, impaired disengagement, and attentional avoidance
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“Hence the more threatening the thought content, or the more catastrophic the interpretation, the more likely it is to capture attention, promoting escalation of negative thoughts into a full-blown and protracted worry episode.”
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Developing interpretation bias modification as a "cognitive vaccine" for depressed mood: Imagining positive events makes you feel better than thinking about them verbally.
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Fixing our focus: Training attention to regulate emotion
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“In the MacLeod et al. (2002) study, undergraduate students attempted to complete several unsolvable anagram puzzles under timed conditions with failure feedback while being videotaped to elevate their stress level and elicit negative emotion.”
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Resilience in the face of stress: emotion regulation as a protective factor
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A critical review of the influence of oxytocin nasal spray on social cognition in humans: Evidence and future directions
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Relatively strong automatic appetitive action‐tendencies in male carriers of the OPRM1 G‐allele
Wiers, R. W., Rinck, M., Dictus, M., & Van Den Wildenberg, E. (2009) · Genes, Brain and Behavior · doi:10.1111/j.1601-183x.2008.00454.x · Cited by 377
“minus the median RT for pulling [in keeping with the original publication on this measure and related RT tests (MacLeod et al. 2002), we analyzed the median RTs, which are less sensitive to outliers than means (Rinck & Becker 2007)].”
Method
Clinical effectiveness of attentional bias modification training in abstinent alcoholic patients
Schoenmakers, T. M., de Bruin, M., Lux, I. F. M., Goertz, A. G., Van Kerkhof, D. H. A. T., & Wiers, R. W. (2010) · Drug and Alcohol Dependence · doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2009.11.022 · Cited by 373
Why gamblers fail to win: A review of cognitive and neuroimaging findings in pathological gambling
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The effect of a single-session attention modification program on response to a public-speaking challenge in socially anxious individuals
Amir, N., Weber, G., Beard, C., Bomyea, J., & Taylor, C. T. (2008) · Journal of Abnormal Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0013445 · Cited by 356
“…whether attention bias to threat is causally involved in the maintenance of social anxiety, we examined the effect of a single attention training session similar to that described by MacLeod et al. (2002) in reducing anxiety response to a social stressor in individuals with social anxiety.”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluential
Emotion Regulation in Depression
Joormann, J., & Vanderlind, W. M. (2014) · Clinical Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/2167702614536163 · Cited by 390
Emotion and perception: the role of affective information
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Clinical Efficacy of Attentional Bias Modification Procedures: An Updated Meta-Analysis
Mogoaşe, C., David, D. O., & Koster, E. H. W. (2014) · Journal of Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1002/jclp.22081 · Cited by 386
Experimental manipulation of attentional bias increases the motivation to drink alcohol
Field, M., & Eastwood, B. (2005) · Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1007/s00213-005-0202-5 · Cited by 347
“Macleod et al. (2002) manipulated attentional bias for threat-related stimuli and explored the effects of this ‘attentional training’ on subjective anxiety.”
Background
Cognitive control mechanisms, emotion and memory: A neural perspective with implications for psychopathology
Banich, M. T., Mackiewicz, K. L., Depue, B. E., Whitmer, A. J., Miller, G. A., & Heller, W. (2009) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2008.09.010 · Cited by 343
“These symptoms as well as behavioral data suggest that two main processes affected in PTSD are memory (Amir et al., 1996; Vrana et al., 1995) and attention/cognitive control (MacLeod et al., 2002; Matthews and MacLeod, 2002).”
Background
Rumination and attention in major depression
Donaldson, C., Lam, D., & Mathews, A. (2007) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.brat.2007.07.002 · Cited by 337
Cutting stress off at the pass: reducing vigilance and responsiveness to social threat by manipulating attention
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“In two of these studies, MacLeod et al. (2002) used a modified visual probe task (VPT) to induce an attentional bias away from threatening information (toward neutral information), or else toward threat.”
Neural Mechanisms Underlying Selective Attention to Threat
Bishop, S. J. (2008) · Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1196/annals.1417.016 · Cited by 356
Anxiety Disorders and Sensory Over-Responsivity in Children with Autism Spectrum Disorders: Is There a Causal Relationship?
Green, S. A., & Ben-Sasson, A. (2010) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-010-1007-x · Cited by 327
“In particular, MacLeod et al. (2002) demonstrated that training individuals to have an attentional bias towards threat-relevant words subsequently increased their negative response to stress.”
Background
Cognitive Bias Modification: Past Perspectives, Current Findings, and Future Applications
Hertel, P. T., & Mathews, A. (2011) · Perspectives on Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/1745691611421205 · Cited by 321
“In fact, although the scenario-based method of interpretation training (Mathews & Mackintosh, 2000) can lead to immediate mood changes, most other methods (involving interpretation or attention to single words) do not, as assessed by self-rating or questionnaire measures (e.g., Hoppitt et al., 2010a, 2010b; MacLeod et…”
BackgroundMethodInfluential
Empirical recommendations for improving the stability of the dot-probe task in clinical research.
Price, R. B., Kuckertz, J. M., Siegle, G. J., Ladouceur, C. D., Silk, J. S., Ryan, N. D., Dahl, R. E., & Amir, N. (2015) · Psychological Assessment · doi:10.1037/pas0000036 · Cited by 312
Anxiety and attention to threat: cognitive mechanisms and treatment with attention bias modification
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“Verbal instructions to direct attention away from threat are usually not included in ABM-threat-avoidance training (MacLeod& Clarke, 2015; MacLeod et al., 2002), which seeks to induce automatic threat avoidance primarily by habit change via repeated behavioural practice, rather than by engaging…”
BackgroundInfluential
A multi-session interpretation modification program: Changes in interpretation and social anxiety symptoms
Beard, C., & Amir, N. (2008) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.brat.2008.05.012 · Cited by 319
The attentional bias modification approach to anxiety intervention
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Attention bias modification for social anxiety: A systematic review and meta-analysis
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Cognitive dysfunction in depression: Neurocircuitry and new therapeutic strategies
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“…in a non-clinical population, attention training resulted in a group difference in anxiety vulnerability to subsequent stress, with participants trained to attend toward threat experiencing greater anxiety after stress than participants trained to attend away from threat (MacLeod et al., 2002).”
Acceptance and commitment therapy and cognitive behavioral therapy for anxiety disorders: Different treatments, similar mechanisms?
Arch, J. J., & Craske, M. G. (2008) · Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice · doi:10.1111/j.1468-2850.2008.00137.x · Cited by 310
“…differentiate nonanxious and anxious individuals (e.g., Asmundson et al., 1992; Bradley et al., 1998, 1999, 2000) and there is initial evidence to support a causal role of attentional biases in the etiology of anxiety and emotional reactivity (MacLeod et al., 2002, 2004; Mathews & MacLeod, 2002).”
Background
The role of peer rejection in adolescent depression
Platt, B., Kadosh, K. C., & Lau, J. Y. F. (2013) · Depression and Anxiety · doi:10.1002/da.22120 · Cited by 300
“The original CBM-A paradigm used a modified version of the dot-probe task to train attention focus away from, or toward, threat cues.[114] In the dot-probe task, an angry and a neutral face are presented simultaneously for a brief period, before a probe appears in the location of one of the images (e.”
Deficient inhibition of emotional information in depression
Goeleven, E., De Raedt, R., Baert, S., & Koster, E. H. W. (2006) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2006.03.007 · Cited by 308
Phenomenological characteristics of attentional biases towards threat: A critical review
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Temperament, anxiety, and the processing of threat-relevant stimuli
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Addiction, adolescence, and the integration of control and motivation
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Attention biases to threat and behavioral inhibition in early childhood shape adolescent social withdrawal
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“For example, McLeod and colleagues (MacLeod, Campbell, Rutherford, & Wilson, 2004; MacLeod et al., 2002; See, MacLeod, & Bridle, 2009) trained nonanxious subjects using a dot-probe task to adopt an attention bias to threat.”
Efficacy of attention bias modification using threat and appetitive stimuli: a meta-analytic review
Beard, C., Sawyer, A. T., & Hofmann, S. G. (2012) · Behavior Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.beth.2012.01.002 · Cited by 291
COGNITIVE PROCESSES AND EMOTION REGULATION IN DEPRESSION: Review: Cognitive Processes in Depression
Joormann, J., & Quinn, M. E. (2014) · Depression and Anxiety · doi:10.1002/da.22264 · Cited by 286
“,[59] for example, first established that attentional biases could be modified by working with participants who scored in the middle third of the distribution on the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory.”
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Processing mode causally influences emotional reactivity: Distinct effects of abstract versus concrete construal on emotional response.
Watkins, E. R., Moberly, N. J., & Moulds, M. L. (2008) · Emotion · doi:10.1037/1528-3542.8.3.364 · Cited by 286
Selective visual attention for ugly and beautiful body parts in eating disorders
Jansen, A. T. M., Nederkoorn, C., & Mulkens, S. (2004) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.brat.2004.01.003 · Cited by 303
Behavioral Inhibition and Anxiety: The Moderating Roles of Inhibitory Control and Attention Shifting
White, L. K., McDermott, J. M., Degnan, K. A., Henderson, H. A., & Fox, N. A. (2011) · Research on Child and Adolescent Psychopathology · doi:10.1007/s10802-011-9490-x · Cited by 305
“Previous research has shown that children and adolescents with fearful temperaments tend to allocate their attention towards threatening information (Lonigan and Vasey 2009; Lonigan et al. 2004; Perez-Edgar et al. 2010), a processing bias associated with increased emotional vulnerability and the development of anxiety…”
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Research Review: A neuroscience framework for pediatric anxiety disorders
Pine, D. S. (2007) · Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry · doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2007.01751.x · Cited by 288
“Moreover, the biases are quite plastic, altered by brief training exercises (MacLeod, Rutherford et al., 2002; Monk, Nelson et al., 2004).”
Background
Introduction to the special section on cognitive bias modification in emotional disorders
Koster, E. H. W., Fox, E., & MacLeod, C. (2009) · Journal of Abnormal Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0014379 · Cited by 272
“For example, MacLeod et al. (2002) manipulated attentional bias by having a task-relevant visual probe always appear either spatially proximal to threatening information (attend threat condition) or spatially distal from threatening information (avoid threat condition).”
Cognitive control interventions for depression: A systematic review of findings from training studies
Koster, E. H. W., Hoorelbeke, K., Onraedt, T., Owens, M., & Derakshan, N. (2017) · Clinical Psychology Review · doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2017.02.002 · Cited by 289
A naturalistic visual scanning approach to assess selective attention in major depressive disorder
Eizenman, M., Yu, L., Grupp, L. A., Eizenman, E., Ellenbogen, M. A., Gemar, M. C., & Levitan, R. D. (2003) · Psychiatry Research · doi:10.1016/s0165-1781(03)00068-4 · Cited by 272
“Further, recent evidence suggests that attentional biases causally alter emotional reactivity to stress (MacLeod et al., 2002).”
Background
Can mindfulness be too much of a good thing? The value of a middle way
Britton, W. B. (2019) · Current Opinion in Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.copsyc.2018.12.011 · Cited by 267
“Thus, not only is exposure ineffective for those who are negatively biased, training attention toward threat in non-avoidant populations has also been found to increase rather than decrease anxiety in both adults and children [41,43,44].”
The Hidden Efficacy of Interventions: Gene×Environment Experiments from a Differential Susceptibility Perspective
Bakermans‐Kranenburg, M. J., & van IJzendoorn, M. H. (2014) · Annual Review of Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev-psych-010814-015407 · Cited by 287
“Manuck (2010) noted that selection only recognizes reproductive success and that the evolutionary underpinnings of the differential susceptibility model hold only if the behavioral phenotypes resulting from the G × E interaction also predict reproductive outcomes.”
Background
The role of attentional bias in obesity and addiction.
Field, M., Werthmann, J., Franken, I. H. A., Hofmann, W., Hogarth, L., & Roefs, A. (2016) · Health Psychology · doi:10.1037/hea0000405 · Cited by 264
Emotion regulation in depression: Examining the role of cognitive processes
Joormann, J., & D’Avanzato, C. (2010) · Cognition & Emotion · doi:10.1080/02699931003784939 · Cited by 288
“Using this approach, MacLeod, Rutherford, Campbell, Ebsworthy, and Holker ( 2002 ) first established that attentional biases could be modified by working with participants who scored in the middle third of the distribution on the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI; Spielberger, Gorusch, & Lushene, 1971 ).”
Background
Cognitive aspects of depression
Kircanski, K., Joormann, J., & Gotlib, I. H. (2012) · Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews Cognitive Science · doi:10.1002/wcs.1177 · Cited by 279
Negative Affectivity, Effortful Control, and Attention to Threat-Relevant Stimuli
Lonigan, C. J., & Vasey, M. W. (2008) · Research on Child and Adolescent Psychopathology · doi:10.1007/s10802-008-9284-y · Cited by 279
The modification of attentional bias to emotional information: A review of the techniques, mechanisms, and relevance to emotional disorders
Browning, M., Holmes, E. A., & Harmer, C. J. (2010) · Cognitive, Affective, & Behavioral Neuroscience · doi:10.3758/cabn.10.1.8 · Cited by 247
“If true, this would predict that concurrent MacLeod, Rutherford, Campbell, Ebsworthy, & Holker, 2002 ).”
Method
Math anxiety: A review of its cognitive consequences, psychophysiological correlates, and brain bases
Pellicioni, M. S., Núñez‐Peña, M. I., & Colomé, À. (2015) · Cognitive Affective & Behavioral Neuroscience · doi:10.3758/s13415-015-0370-7 · Cited by 316
Theories and measurement of visual attentional processing in anxiety
Weierich, M. R., Treat, T. A., & Hollingworth, A. (2008) · Cognition and Emotion · doi:10.1080/02699930701597601 · Cited by 245
Attentional bias for threat: Crisis or opportunity?
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Approach bias modification training and consumption: A review of the literature
Kakoschke, N., Kemps, E., & Tiggemann, M. (2016) · Addictive Behaviors · doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2016.08.007 · Cited by 244
Whither cognitive bias modification research? Commentary on the special section articles.
MacLeod, C., Koster, E. H. W., & Fox, E. (2009) · Journal of Abnormal Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0014878 · Cited by 239
“Some previous studies have examined the effects of CBM on custom-designed measures, such as analogue scales (MacLeod et al., 2002).”
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Lateral prefrontal cortex mediates the cognitive modification of attentional bias
Browning, M., Holmes, E. A., Murphy, S. E., Goodwin, G. M., & Harmer, C. J. (2010) · Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2009.10.031 · Cited by 236
“Most onvincingly, a number of recent studies have used a cognitive raining paradigm to alter attention to emotional stimuli and have een able to demonstrate experimentally that inducing a negaive attentional bias in healthy participants increases anxiety (4), hile reducing negative attentional biases in clinically anx…”
Concreteness training reduces dysphoria: Proof-of-principle for repeated cognitive bias modification in depression.
Watkins, E. R., Baeyens, C., & Read, R. (2009) · Journal of Abnormal Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0013642 · Cited by 252

Induced Attention Biases as Causal Factors in Emotional Vulnerability
Ouimet, A. J. (2007) · Scholarship@Western (Western University)
Malleability of attentional bias for positive emotional information and anxiety vulnerability.
Taylor, C. T., Bomyea, J. A., & Amir, N. (2011) · Emotion · doi:10.1037/a0021301 · Cited by 96
The reduction of anxiety vulnerability through the modification of attentional bias: a real-world study using a home-based cognitive bias modification procedure
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Emotional Experience in the Face of Stress: The Contribution of Attentional Bias to Negative Expectancy and AnxietyPreprint
Ventris, C., MacLeod, C., Rudaizky, D., & Grafton, B. (2025) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/zbk43_v1
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Authors: MacLeod, C., Rutherford, E., Campbell, L., Ebsworthy, G., & Holker, L.
Affiliations: The University of Western Australia (AU)
ORCID: MacLeod, Colin
Venue: Journal of Abnormal Psychology
Publisher: American Psychological Association (APA)
Published: 2002-02
Volume: 111
Issue: 1
Pages: 107-123
ISSN: 0021-843X (ISSN-L)
1939-1846
DOI: 10.1037/0021-843x.111.1.107
OpenAlex: W2122758649
Cited by: 1,334
References: 48
Citations by year: 2026: 13 · 2025: 31 · 2024: 41 · 2023: 35 · 2022: 44 · 2021: 80 · 2020: 54 · 2019: 73 · 2018: 65 · 2017: 61 · 2016: 80 · 2015: 96 · 2014: 84 · 2013: 96 · 2012: 83
FWCI: 32.64
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: Journal of Abnormal Psychology (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
UWA Profiles and Research Repository (UWA) (submittedVersion)
Topics: Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive Processes
Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neural and Behavioral Psychology Studies
Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child and Adolescent Psychosocial and Emotional Development
Keywords: attentional bias, emotional vulnerability, selective attention, negative emotions, dot-probe task, stress reactivity, causal mediation analysis, cognitive bias modification
MeSH terms: Adolescent, Psychology, Adolescent, Adult, Affect, Attention, Female, Humans, Male

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Selective attention and emotional vulnerability: Assessing the causal basis of their association through the experimental manipulation of attentional bias.

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