Impostor Phenomenon and Psychological Well-Being: The Moderating Roles of John Henryism and School Racial Composition Among Black College Students

May combine two claims.

High John Henryism has been linked to higher self-esteem and fewer depressive symptoms and less psychological distress among Black men and women.

“high levels of John Henryism have been linked to increases in self-esteem (Stevens-Watkins et al., 2014) and reductions in depressive symptoms and psychological distress among Black men and women (Bronder et al., 2014; Hill & Hoggard, 2018; Kiecolt et al., 2009; Matthews et al., 2013).”

• cites Bronder et al., 2014 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Hill & Hoggard, 2018 sourcePartly supported

  The Discussion (page unavailable) reports prior findings that John Henryism may protect against depressive symptoms in African American women and men. But the paper’s own findings associate higher John Henryism with a stronger indirect link between race-related stress and depressive symptoms; the cited passage does not establish reduced psychological distress. The self-esteem claim is attached to a different citation, not Hill and Hoggard. (LLM, conf=0.84)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites Kiecolt et al., 2009 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Sole reliance on active coping strategies such as John Henryism in response to race-related stress may reduce self-esteem and self-concept over time.

“it has been argued that sole reliance on active coping strategies such as John Henryism in the face of race-related stress may compromise self-esteem and self-concept over time (Perry et al., 2012).”

• cites Perry et al., 2012 sourcePartly supported

  The Background and Discussion (pages unavailable) describe John Henryism as active coping and argue that, under persistent disadvantage, it may lead to frustration and psychological distress. The Discussion also describes gendered racism as a threat to self-concept and secure self-esteem, but does not say that sole reliance on active coping reduces either over time. (LLM, conf=0.84)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Sustained high-effort coping may harm mental health because coping with chronic stress depletes psychological resources over time.

“researchers have argued that sustained high effort coping may compromise mental health as the effort and energy needed to cope with chronic stress may deplete psychological resources over time (Matthews et al., 2013).”

• cites Matthews et al., 2013 sourceSupported

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The study had adequate statistical power: with 80% power and an a priori effect size of R2 = .13, a minimum sample of 216 was required.

“Consistent with findings from previous IP research (Bernard et al., 2017; Cokley et al., 2017), power for moderated regression analyses was set to 80% with an a priori effect size of R2 = .13, which corresponds to a small to medium effect (Cohen, 1988). Using G*Power (Faul et al., 2009), it was determined that a minimum sample size of 216 was necessary to test the study hypotheses.”

• cites Cohen, 1988Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Faul et al., 2009 sourceSupported

May combine two claims.

The JHAC total score showed internal consistency in the present sample (α = .76), consistent with prior studies (α .61-.96).

“Studies utilizing total scores on the JHAC scale have reported Cronbach’s alphas ranging from .61 to .96 (Fernander et al., 2003; Jones et al., 2019; Volpe et al., 2020), which is in line with the current study (sample α = .76).”

• cites Fernander et al., 2003Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Jones et al., 2019 sourceSupported
• cites Volpe et al., 2020Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

Scholars have reported high correlations among MSSS subscales and used an overall total score to address redundancy.

“scholars have reported high correlations between subscales (e.g., rs =.51; Greer, 2008) and have subsequently utilized an overall total score to address redundancy (Cokley et al., 2013; Greer & Brown, 2011).”

• cites Greer, 2008Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Cokley et al., 2013 sourcePartly supported

  The Measures section (page unavailable) says both MSSS subscale and total scores were used, and the Data Analysis section says the total score was used in regressions. Neither passage says the total score was chosen to address redundancy among subscales. The subscale-correlation example is cited to Greer (2008), not Cokley et al. (LLM, conf=0.87)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites Greer & Brown, 2011 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

The CIPS total score showed internal consistency in the present sample (α = .92), consistent with prior Black samples (α .91-.93).

“Studies utilizing the total scores of the CIPS within predominately Black samples have reported Cronbach’s alphas ranging from .91 to .93 (Bernard et al., 2017; Cokley et al., 2013), which is in line with the present study (α = .92).”

• cites Bernard et al., 2017 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Cokley et al., 2013 sourcePartly supported

  The Measures section reports a CIPS alpha of .93 for Cokley et al.’s overall sample, and the ethnicity-disaggregated Table 1 in the data-analysis section lists .92 for African American students. The study included African American, Asian American, and Latino/a students, so its overall .93 does not come from a predominantly Black sample. The citing study’s own α = .92 is not a result attributed to Cokley et al. (LLM, conf=0.86)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Researchers have largely used a unidimensional total score approach for the CIPS, with higher responses indicating more intense impostor cognitions.

“researchers have largely taken a unidimensional total score approach wherein higher responses indicate more intense impostor cognitions (see Mak et al., 2019).”

• cites Mak et al., 2019 sourcePartly supported

  The Discussion (Strengths and Weaknesses; page unavailable) says the 20-item, one-factor CIPS continues to be used with a total score, supporting the claim about researchers’ scoring approach. The passages do not specify that higher item responses indicate more intense impostor cognitions, so that part remains unsupported by our copy. (LLM, conf=0.82)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

May combine two claims.

In the social anxiety model, higher social anxiety was associated with greater minority status stress, lower self-esteem, and higher maladaptive perfectionism at Step 1.

“At Step 1, the omnibus test was statistically significant, F(6, 257) = 20.25, p < .001, adjusted R2 = .31, as well as some of the individual covariates for social anxiety: (a) minority status stress (β = .19, p = .001), (b) self-esteem (β = −.35, p < .001), and (c) maladaptive perfectionism (β = .15, p = .027). These data suggests that higher levels of social anxiety was associated with increased”

May combine two claims.

In the self-esteem model, higher self-esteem was associated with lower impostor phenomenon and higher John Henryism at Step 2 (IP β = −.26, p < .001; John Henryism β = .32, p < .001).

“At Step 2, the omnibus test was also statistically significant, F(3, 254) = 30.37, p < .001, ΔR2 = .15, adjusted R2 = .57, with IP (β = −.26, p < .001) and John Henryism (β = .32, p < .001) exhibiting significant main effects, indicating that higher levels of self-esteem was associated with lower levels of IP and higher levels of active coping.”

May combine two claims.

The inverse association between impostor phenomenon and self-esteem was significant for students at PWIs (b = −.41, p < .001) and at HBCUs (b = −.16, p < .001).

“Simple slope analyses illustrated an inverse link between IP and self-esteem among participants attending PWIs (b = −.41; p < .001) and HBCUs (b = −.16; p < .001).”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The binary PWI/HBCU variable adequately captures institutional racial composition for the study's analyses.

May combine two claims.

In the self-esteem model, higher self-esteem was associated with lower social anxiety and lower maladaptive perfectionism at Step 1.

“At Step 1, the omnibus test was statistically significant, F(6, 257) = 33.31, p < .001, adjusted R2 = .42, as well as covariates such as social anxiety (β = −.29, p < .001) and maladaptive perfectionism (β = −.48, p < .001). This evidence suggests that higher levels of self-esteem was associated with lower levels of social anxiety and maladaptive perfectionism.”

May combine two claims.

In the maladaptive perfectionism model, higher maladaptive perfectionism was associated with higher minority status stress and lower self-esteem.

“These results also highlighted that higher levels of maladaptive perfectionism were associated with higher levels of minority status stress and lower levels of self-esteem.”

May combine two claims.

In the maladaptive perfectionism model, neither the two-way nor the three-way interactions were significant.

“The omnibus test at Step 3, F(3, 251) = 1.15, p = .330, ΔR2 = .007, adjusted R2 = .44, and at Step 4, F(1, 250) = 0.16, p = .687, ΔR2 = .000, adjusted R2 = .44, were not found to be significant.”

May combine two claims.

John Henryism has been argued to reduce perceived stress, which may lower risk of negative mood symptoms.

“John Henrysim has been argued to reduce perceptions of stress (Haritatos et al., 2007), which may also decrease the risk of negative mood symptoms (Neighbors et al., 2007).”

• cites Haritatos et al., 2007 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Neighbors et al., 2007 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Chronic exposure to negative race-related experiences that emphasize minoritized status may intensify intellectual incompetence cognitions and increase poor psychological adjustment risk at PWIs.

“IP research conducted at PWIs suggests that chronic exposure to negative race-related experiences that emphasize one’s minoritized and marginalized status may play a central role in intensifying cognitions of intellectual incompetence, thus increasing risk for poor psychological adjustment (Bernard et al., 2017; Cokley et al., 2017).”

• cites Bernard et al., 2017 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Cokley et al., 2017 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Pressures to navigate academic, social, and race-related stressors may produce internalized otherness and inferiority, concerns about negative evaluation, and a compulsive need to prove ability at both PWIs and HBCUs.

“Pressures to navigate these stressors may lead to an internalized sense of otherness and inferiority, concerns about negative evaluations from others, and a compulsive need to prove one’s ability at both PWIs and HBCUs (Austin et al., 2009; Peteet et al., 2015).”

• cites Austin et al., 2009Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Peteet et al., 2015 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Perceptions of control and mastery over one's environment have been linked to lower anxiety and fewer maladaptive perfectionistic tendencies.

“perceptions of control and mastery over one’s environment has also been linked to lower feelings of anxiety (Gallagher et al., 2014) and lower maladaptive perfectionistic tendencies (Sassaroli et al., 2008).”

• cites Gallagher et al., 2014 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Sassaroli et al., 2008 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

In predominantly White samples, IP has been linked to more social and performance anxiety, more perfectionistic concerns about mistakes, and lower self-esteem.

“IP has been linked to numerous indices of negative psychological adjustment outcomes including increases in social and performance anxiety (Chrisman et al., 1995), perfectionistic concerns of making mistakes (Thompson et al., 2000), and lower self-esteem (Sonnak & Towell, 2001).”

• cites Chrisman et al., 1995 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Thompson et al., 2000 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Sonnak & Towell, 2001 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Cross-sectional and longitudinal literature links IP to poorer psychological adjustment, including more distress, anxiety, depressive symptoms, interpersonal sensitivity, and lower self-esteem.

“cross-sectional and longitudinal literature has linked IP to poor psychological adjustment outcomes including increases in psychological distress, anxiety and depressive symptoms, interpersonal sensitivity, and decreases in self-esteem (Austin et al., 2009; Bernard et al., 2017; Cokley et al., 2017; Lige et al., 2017; McClain et al., 2016; Peteet et al., 2015).”

• cites Austin et al., 2009Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Bernard et al., 2017 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Cokley et al., 2017 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

At PWIs, Black students may report more discrimination, more hostile campus climates, and less institutional support than HBCU peers.

“at PWIs, Black students may be more likely to report discriminatory experiences, perceive more hostile campus climates, and endorse lower feelings of support from their institution, relative to their HBCU peers (e.g., Campbell et al., 2019; Smith et al., 2016).”

• cites Campbell et al., 2019 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Smith et al., 2016 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

John Henryism is more prevalent among Black individuals than among White individuals.

“John Henryism has been found to be more prevalent among Black individuals relative to their White counterparts (Bennett et al., 2004; Neighbors et al., 2007).”

• cites Bennett et al., 2004 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Neighbors et al., 2007 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

John Henryism may protect against negative mental health outcomes under stress.

“Although John Henrysim may buffer against negative mental health outcomes in the face of stress (Bronder et al., 2014), the high effort and determination associated with this active coping strategy may unintentionally reinforce negative attributions associated with IP, and in turn, increase risk for poor psychological adjustment (Bernard & Neblett, 2018).”

• cites Bronder et al., 2014 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

IP has been argued to have a pronounced negative impact on Black emerging adults' mental health.

“IP has been argued to have a pronounced negative impact on the mental health of Black emerging adults (Cokley et al., 2017; Peteet et al., 2015).”

• cites Cokley et al., 2017 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Peteet et al., 2015 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

The Concern Over Mistakes subscale reflects maladaptive concerns that equate mistakes with failure and beliefs that failure leads to negative perceptions from others.

“the Concerns Over Mistakes subscale is considered to be reflective of maladaptive concerns that equate mistakes to failure, in addition to beliefs that failure will lead to negative perceptions from others (Frost et al., 1990).”

• cites Frost et al., 1990 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

Institutional racial composition (PWI vs. HBCU) serves as a contextual factor that may affect primary or secondary appraisal processes.

“institutional racial composition (e.g., PWI vs. HBCU) serves as a contextual factor that may impact either the primary or secondary appraisal processes.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Institutional review board approval was obtained from each university where data were collected.

“Following institutional review board approval from each university where data were collected, interested participants were screened for eligibility.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

John Henryism serves as a critical individual coping strategy that may reduce IP's short-term stress impact but may also have long-term well-being implications.

“John Henryism serves as a critical individual coping strategy that may not only mitigate the impact of IP as a stress response in the short-term, but may also have long-term implications for well-being.”

May combine two claims.

The data met assumptions of normality, homoscedasticity, and homogeneity of variance, with no missing data or multicollinearity.

“There were no missing data or evidence of multicollinearity among key variables, and the assumption of homoscedasticity was met for the respective analyses. Inspection of Levene’s test for equality of variances supported assumptions of homogeneity of variance among the key variables.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

In this study, IP represents a proximal consequence of stress for Black students when the college environment threatens their feelings of competence.

“In the context of the current study, IP represents a proximal consequence of the stress that Black students face, particularly when, due to the aforementioned experiences of discrimination, the college environment serves as a threat to one’s feelings of competence.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

In the transactional model of stress and coping, if a person appraises the person-environment dynamic as a threat, their well-being may be compromised.

“The TMSC argues that if the individual’s appraisal of the person-environment dynamic (i.e., potential stress) is that of threat, their well-being may be compromised.”

• cites Lazarus & Folkman, 1984Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The Social Interaction Anxiety Scale showed high internal consistency in the current sample (α = .93), consistent with prior Black samples (α = .88).

“Previous researchers using the SIAS scores with a Black sample (Carter et al., 2014) reported a Cronbach’s alpha of .88, which is consistent with the internal reliability found in the current study (sample α = .93).”

• cites Carter et al., 2014 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

The Concern Over Mistakes subscale has been used as an independent indicator of maladaptive perfectionism in empirical research.

“the Concerns Over Mistakes subscale has been used as an independent indicator of maladaptive perfectionism in empirical research (Frost et al., 1995, 1997).”

• cites Frost et al., 1995, 1997Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Higher Concern Over Mistakes scores have been associated with greater psychopathology risk.

“scholars suggest that higher scores on the Concerns Over Mistakes subscale have been associated with a higher risk for psychopathology (Frost et al., 1993).”

• cites Frost et al., 1993 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale showed high internal consistency in the current sample (α = .90), consistent with prior Black samples (e.g., .90).

“With regard to reliability estimates of the RSES scores for Black samples, the estimate has been reported to be high (e.g., .90; Peteet et al., 2015), which is consistent with the current sample (α = .90).”

• cites Peteet et al., 2015 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Among HBCU students, accumulated stressors can harm psychological well-being and contribute to impostor cognitions.

“Among students attending HBCUs, the accumulation of such stressors can negatively affect psychological well-being (K. M. Smith et al., 2014) and contribute to impostor cognitions (Austin et al., 2009).”

• cites K. M. Smith et al., 2014 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Austin et al., 2009Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

The CIPS has convergent validity with other IP measures and negative adjustment indicators and divergent validity with self-esteem.

“the CIPS has been found to positively correlate with other IP measures in addition to negative adjustment indicators such as depression and social anxiety (Chrisman et al., 1995). With respect to divergent validity, the CIPS has been shown to negatively correlate with indicators of self-esteem (Chrisman et al., 1995).”

• cites Chrisman et al., 1995 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The JHAC correlates positively with other active coping strategies and is distinguishable from Type A behavior, anger/hostility, and emotion-focused and behavioral disengagement coping.

“The JHAC has been found to positively correlate with other active coping strategies and be discriminable from Type A behavioral patterns, anger and hostility, and emotion-focused and behavioral disengagement coping strategies (see Fernander et al., 2003).”

• cites Fernander et al., 2003 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The MSSS has inverse relationships with academic performance and mental health as discriminant validity and a positive association with college stress as convergent validity.

“Studies have documented an inverse relationship between the MSSS and academic performance (Greer & Chwalisz, 2007) and mental health (McClain et al., 2016) as indicators of discriminant validity. Evidence of convergent validity has been illustrated via a positive association between MSSS and college stress (Arbona et al., 2018).”

• cites Greer & Chwalisz, 2007 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites McClain et al., 2016 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Arbona et al., 2018 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Although stress may differ at HBCUs and PWIs, IP is a notable determinant of Black students' well-being in both contexts.

“Although stress may look different at HBCUs and PWIs, research suggests that IP is a notable determinant for Black students’ well-being in both contexts.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The MSSS is composed of five underlying factors.

“Initial principal component analysis indicated that the MSSS is composed of five underlying factors (i.e., social climate stress, interracial stress, racism and discrimination, within-group stress, and achievement stress; Smedley et al., 1993).”

• cites Smedley et al., 1993 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

In this study, CIPS scores correlated positively with maladaptive perfectionism and social anxiety and negatively with self-esteem.

“In the current study, the CIPS was found to be positively correlated with measures of maladaptive perfectionism and social anxiety, and negatively associated with self-esteem measures.”

May combine two claims.

The MSSS total score showed internal consistency in the present sample (α = .96), consistent with prior Black samples (α .93-.97).

“Studies utilizing the MSSS scores among Black samples have documented Cronbach’s alphas of .93 to .97 (Greer & Brown, 2011; McClain et al., 2016), which is in line with the current study (sample α = .96).”

• cites Greer & Brown, 2011 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites McClain et al., 2016 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The Concern Over Mistakes subscale of the FMPS showed good internal consistency in the current sample (α = .90), consistent with prior Black samples (α = .88).

“For Black samples, scholars have reported a Cronbach’s alpha of .88 for the Concern Over Mistakes subscale scores (Castro & Rice, 2003), which is consistent with the current study (sample α = .90).”

• cites Castro & Rice, 2003 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The modified Bonferroni procedure was used to control Type I error, with initial alpha cutoffs of .01 for t tests and .003 for moderated regression analyses.

“To control for Type I error, we utilized the modified Bonferroni procedure (Holland & Copenhaver, 1988).”

• Also stated in: § Analytic Strategy · plain

  “As our t tests involved the comparison of five different means, our initial p value was .05/5 = .01. With moderated regression analyses testing 14 variables, our initial alpha cutoff value was .05/14 = .003.”

• cites Holland & Copenhaver, 1988 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

Because impostor phenomenon is a private internal emotional experience, the determination and high effort of John Henryism may be used as self-protection from outside scrutiny or criticism that may reify negative self-perceptions.

“Given that IP has been described as “a private, internal, emotional experience” (Lane, 2015, p. 9), the determination and high effort that undergirds John Henryism may be used as a means of self-protection from outside scrutiny or criticism that may reify negative self-perceptions.”

• cites Lane, 2015 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Conclusions about the two- and three-way interactions should be made with caution because of the relatively small variance explained in social anxiety and self-esteem.

“Fourth, we are also aware that conclusions pertaining to the two and three-way interactions should be made with caution because of the relatively small percentage of variance explained in the outcome variables of social anxiety and self-esteem.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Students attending PWIs who report higher impostor phenomenon and John Henryism may perceive themselves as more socially and academically isolated compared with HBCU peers.

“Alternatively, students attending PWIs who report higher levels of IP and John Henryism may perceive themselves to be more socially and academically isolated compared with their HBCU peers.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The binary PWI/HBCU variable adequately captures institutional racial composition for the study's analyses.

May combine two claims.

Black students attending HBCUs reported higher academic achievement, greater campus satisfaction, and more positive relationships with faculty and peers than students attending PWIs.

“As illustrated in the seminal work by Fleming (1984), Black students attending HBCUs reported higher academic achievement, greater campus satisfaction, and more positive relationships with faculty and peers than students attending PWIs.”

• cites Fleming (1984)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Because measures were not counterbalanced, order effects cannot be ruled out.

“Fifth, given that measures were not counterbalanced, we cannot rule out the possibility of order effects.”

May combine two claims.

High effort coping may shape behavioral health outcomes in the face of race-related stressors but may not influence perfectionistic tendencies or evaluations of one's own worth.

“Thus, while high effort coping may shape behavioral health outcomes in the face of race-related stressors, it may not influence perfectionistic tendencies or evaluations of one’s own worth.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The binary operationalization of institutional racial composition may not capture the complexities of attending a PWI or HBCU.

“First, we are aware that Black students are not monolithic in their experiences and reducing institutional racial composition to a binary variable may not capture the complexities associated with attending a PWI or HBCU.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

HBCU attendance may serve a protective role in relation to impostor phenomenon, John Henryism, and social anxiety.

“It is also possible that HBCU attendance may serve a protective role in relation to IP, John Henryism, and social anxiety.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The binary PWI/HBCU variable adequately captures institutional racial composition for the study's analyses.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Active coping within PWIs may be an independent or individualistic strategy, whereas active coping within HBCUs may be a more communalistic or collective strategy.

“As such, while active coping within PWIs may be seen as an independent or individualistic strategy to cope with stress (e.g., “I’ll get through this myself”), active coping within HBCUs may be a more communalistic or collective strategy to navigate stressors (e.g., “We’ll get through this together”).”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The binary PWI/HBCU variable adequately captures institutional racial composition for the study's analyses.

May combine two claims.

The support and representation associated with HBCU attendance may repudiate feelings of otherness associated with impostor phenomenon and decrease negative internal dialogues about one's intellectual abilities.

“The inherent support and representation often associated with HBCU attendance may serve to repudiate feelings of otherness commonly associated with IP and may subsequently decrease negative internal dialogues related to one’s own intellectual abilities.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

These students may believe they must work harder than others to do well but still fear their efforts may be perceived as inadequate.

“That is, these students may believe it is a must to work harder than others to do well, but still fear that their efforts may be perceived as inadequate.”