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Cited by 151Helminth infection and controlParasitic infections in humans and animalsParasites and Host Interactions

Are we paying too much attention to cardio-pulmonary nematodes and neglecting old-fashioned worms like Trichuris vulpis?

Open access
Traversa, Donato·2011·Parasites & Vectors
DOI 10.1186/1756-3305-4-32PMC PMC3063211
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Abstract

Trichuris vulpis, the dog whipworm, causes an intestinal parasitosis of relevance in current canine veterinary practice. Its occurrence is well-known in pets, kennelled dogs and stray animals, and its eggs contaminate the ground in urban areas all over the world. Moreover, T. vulpis has been occasionally incriminated, though not convincingly substantiated, as a cause of zoonosis. This nematode is erroneously considered an "old-fashioned" pathogen with a consequent lack of up- to- date knowledge on several aspects of the infection. These, in turn, are still controversial and need to be studied in greater depth. This article reviews current knowledge of T. vulpis, together with a discussion of critical points in epidemiology, zoonotic hazard, diagnosis and treatment of canine trichurosis.

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

This narrative review argues that *Trichuris vulpis*, the canine whipworm, remains an under-recognized and under-studied intestinal parasite despite its global distribution and high prevalence in dogs. It critically examines controversial aspects of epidemiology, zoonotic potential, diagnosis, and treatment, and calls for updated surveys and better integration of whipworm control with emerging cardio-pulmonary nematode prevention.

Key findings

  • *T. vulpis* is globally distributed and can reach high infection rates: up to 15–30% in kennelled dogs in the USA, Belgium, and Holland; ~2.6–3% in older companion-dog surveys in Great Britain and Greece versus ~10–30% in more recent studies in Greece, Argentina, and France; and up to 60% in stray dogs.
  • Its zoonotic potential is debated: human patent infections have mostly been diagnosed by egg size, but adult worms from presumed *T. vulpis* infections have been re-identified as *T. trichiura* shedding abnormal eggs; the paper concludes *T. vulpis* cannot currently be included among zoonotic canine parasites until unequivocal DNA-based identification in human samples is provided.
  • Diagnosis is challenging because prepatency is about 8–12 weeks, egg shedding can be intermittent, and eggs of *T. vulpis* (about 70–90 μm by 30–40 μm) resemble those of *Eucoleus*/*Capillaria* species; repeated faecal examinations and flotation with solutions >1.20–1.35 specific gravity are recommended.
  • Treatment requires repeated administration: at least three monthly treatments are advised because larvae take about three months to mature; emodepside plus praziquantel showed nearly 100% efficacy, moxidectin/imidacloprid spot-on ~97–100%, milbemycin oxime ~96–99%, and milbemycin associations 99.6–100%, yet a Swiss survey found a 22% yearly incidence of *T. vulpis* despite quarterly febantel/pyrantel/praziquantel treatment.

Methods

  • Narrative review article synthesizing current knowledge on *T. vulpis* epidemiology, zoonotic hazard, diagnosis, and treatment/control.
  • Data sources include published literature and Table 1, which compiles surveys from the last decade in different Italian regions on *T. vulpis* eggs in privately owned dogs, kennelled dogs, and environmental samples, alongside unpublished 2009–2010 data from Central Italy.
  • Main analysis is a critical discussion of gaps and controversies rather than a systematic review or primary experimental study.

Limitations

  • Stated in the paper: no extensive epidemiological studies focusing on canine trichurosis have been undertaken in recent years; available distribution data are markedly heterogeneous; zoonotic potential remains uncertain and not definitively established; diagnostic approaches have limitations.
  • Evident from the text: this is a narrative review, not a systematic review, and it relies partly on unpublished data, conference proceedings, and heterogeneous surveys, so prevalence figures are not directly comparable across settings.
  • Evident from the text: the article does not present new primary data or a formal meta-analysis, and several treatment and prevalence claims are drawn from cited studies rather than independently re-analyzed.

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1186/1756-3305-4-32

Cites

80 of 80 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Nothing to recompute.

Claims the paper makes

0 of 169 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged

  • Findingcitation

    Mixed infections by T. vulpis and E. aerophilus may often occur.

    “of particular importance and of diagnostic significance are mixed infections by T. vulpis and E. aerophilus (Figure 4), which may often occur [Traversa, unpublished].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [Traversa, unpublished]

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Premisereasoning

    T. vulpis eggs may survive from cold winter to hot summer, especially in wet and shady areas.

    “More specifically, T. vulpis eggs may survive from cold winter to hot summer, especially in wet and shady areas.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Premisenone given

    T. vulpis eggs may remain viable and infective in the environment for years.

    “The eggs may remain viable and infective in the environment for years, leading to high infection rates in dogs and consequent difficulties in controlling canine trichurosis.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Premisenone given

    Unless exposed to extreme conditions for long periods, desiccation and sunlight often do not affect T. vulpis egg viability.

    “Unless exposed to extreme conditions for long periods, desiccation and sunlight often do not affect egg viability.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Premisecitation

    A possible association between the presence of T. vulpis and the hookworm Ancylostoma caninum has been detected in infected dogs.

    “a possible association between the presence of T. vulpis and of the hookworm Ancylostoma caninum has also been detected in infected dogs [6,9,10].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [6] Fontanarrosa MF, Vezzani D, Basabe J, Eiras DF: An epidemiological study of gastrointestinal parasites of dogs from Southern Greater Buenos Aires (Argentina): age, gender, breed, mixed infections, and seasonal and spatial patterns. Vet Parasitol. 2006, 136: 283-295. 10.1016/j.vetpar.2005.11.012. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [9] Visco RJ, Corwin RM, Selby LA: Effect of age and sex on the prevalence of intestinal parasitism in dogs. J Am Vet Med Assoc. 1977, 170: 835-837.

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [10] Nolan TJ, Smith G: Time series analysis of the prevalence of endoparasitic infections in cats and dogs presented to a veterinary teaching hospital. Vet Par. 1995, 59: 87-96. 10.1016/0304-4017(94)00742-U. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims. 31
  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 26

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    Unpublished results from Central Italy (Abruzzo and Marche regions) in 2009-2010 showed a prevalence of trichurosis of 10-15% in privately owned dogs and an infection rate from 30 to 60% in kennelled animals.

    “Unpublished results obtained in 2009-2010 from Central Italy (i.e. Abruzzo and Marche regions) showed a prevalence of trichurosis of 10-15% in privately owned dogs and an infection rate from 30 to 60% in kennelled animals [Traversa, unpublished].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [Traversa, unpublished]

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisenone given

    T. vulpis adults are a few cm long (~4.5-7.5 cm) with a thick, broad tail about one quarter of the total body length.

    “They are worms a few cm long (~4.5-7.5 cm) in which the thick, broad tail is about one quarter of the total length of the body”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Interpretationnone given

    Trichuris vulpis causes an intestinal parasitosis of relevance in current canine veterinary practice.

    “Trichuris vulpis, the dog whipworm, causes an intestinal parasitosis of relevance in current canine veterinary practice.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given

    T. vulpis has been occasionally incriminated as a cause of zoonosis, but this is not convincingly substantiated.

    “T. vulpis has been occasionally incriminated, though not convincingly substantiated, as a cause of zoonosis.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    The prepatent period of T. vulpis is about 8-12 weeks.

    “The period of prepatency is about 8-12 weeks [3,4].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [3] Taylor MA, Coop RL, Wall RL: Veterinary Parasitology. 2007, Blackwell Publishing, 3

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [4] Kirkova Z, Dinev I: Morphological changes in the intestine of dogs experimentally infected with Trichuris vulpis. Bulgarian J Vet Med. 2005, 8: 239-243.

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisenone given

    T. vulpis occurs in pets, kennelled dogs and stray animals.

    “Its occurrence is well-known in pets, kennelled dogs and stray animals”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Premisenone given

    T. vulpis eggs contaminate the ground in urban areas all over the world.

    “its eggs contaminate the ground in urban areas all over the world”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisenone given

    Adult T. vulpis inhabit the large intestine of domestic and wild canids, e.g. dogs and foxes.

    “Adult T. vulpis inhabit the large intestine of domestic and wild canids, e.g. dogs and foxes.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisenone given

    After mating, T. vulpis females release trichuroid eggs containing a single cell that reach the environment via faeces and embryonate in soil over three to eight weeks to form an infectious larva inside the eggs.

    “After mating, the females release trichuroid eggs containing a single cell which reach the environment via the faeces and, depending on moisture and temperature conditions, embryonate in the soil over a period of three-eight weeks to form an infectious larva inside the eggs.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    T. vulpis nematodes live with the long filamentous cephalic end embedded in the mucosa of the caecum and colon, while the posterior extremity lies free in the lumen.

    “The nematodes live with the long and filamentous cephalic end embedded in the mucosa of the caecum and colon of the infected host, while the posterior extremity lies free in the lumen [2,3].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [2] Bowman DD: Georgi's Parasitology for Veterinarians. 2002, Saunders Company, 7

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [3] Taylor MA, Coop RL, Wall RL: Veterinary Parasitology. 2007, Blackwell Publishing, 3

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisenone given

    After infective T. vulpis eggs are swallowed, the egg plugs are lysed, larvae hatch, penetrate intestinal glands for up to two weeks, molt, colonize the large intestine and reach adulthood.

    “After the infective eggs have been swallowed by a suitable host, the egg plugs are lysed, the larvae hatch and then penetrate the intestinal glands for up to two weeks where they molt before colonizing the large intestine and reaching adulthood.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The incidence of trichurosis is higher in adult dogs, which also have higher parasitic burdens than younger animals.

    “thus the incidence of trichurosis is higher in adult dogs, which also have higher parasitic burdens than younger animals [3,5-8].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 5 sources checked
    • cites [3] Taylor MA, Coop RL, Wall RL: Veterinary Parasitology. 2007, Blackwell Publishing, 3

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [5] Barutzki D, Schaper R: Endoparasites in dogs and cats in Germany 1999-2002. Parasitol Res. 2003, 90 (Suppl 3): S148-150. 10.1007/s00436-003-0922-6. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [6] Fontanarrosa MF, Vezzani D, Basabe J, Eiras DF: An epidemiological study of gastrointestinal parasites of dogs from Southern Greater Buenos Aires (Argentina): age, gender, breed, mixed infections, and seasonal and spatial patterns. Vet Parasitol. 2006, 136: 283-295. 10.1016/j.vetpar.2005.11.012. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [7] Ugbomoiko US, Ariza L, Heukelbach J: Parasites of importance for human health in Nigerian dogs: high prevalence and limited knowledge of pet owners. BMC Vet Res. 2008, 4: 49-10.1186/1746-6148-4-49. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [8] Itoh N, Kanai K, Hori Y, Hoshi F, Higuchi S: Prevalence of Giardia intestinalis and other zoonotic intestinal parasites in private household dogs of the Hachinohe area in Aomori prefecture, Japan in 1997, 2002 and 2007. J Vet Sci. 2009, 10: 305-308. 10.4142/jvs.2009.10.4.305. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisenone given

    The zoonotic potential of T. vulpis is debated.

    “The zoonotic potential of T. vulpis is being debated.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    The prevalence rates of intestinal trichurosis in adult dogs may be due to an absence of transplacental and/or transmammary transmission in T. vulpis, its long prepatent period, and a likely inability to elicit a protective immune response.

    “The prevalence rates of intestinal trichurosis in adult dogs may also be due to an absence of a transplacental and/or transmammary transmission in T. vulpis, to its long pre-patent period, and to a likely inability to elicit a protective immune response [3,6].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [3] Taylor MA, Coop RL, Wall RL: Veterinary Parasitology. 2007, Blackwell Publishing, 3

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [6] Fontanarrosa MF, Vezzani D, Basabe J, Eiras DF: An epidemiological study of gastrointestinal parasites of dogs from Southern Greater Buenos Aires (Argentina): age, gender, breed, mixed infections, and seasonal and spatial patterns. Vet Parasitol. 2006, 136: 283-295. 10.1016/j.vetpar.2005.11.012. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisereasoning

    The majority of diagnoses of T. vulpis infection in humans have relied solely on egg measurements, with no thorough morphological or molecular analysis of adult worms.

    “The majority of diagnosis of T. vulpis infection in humans has relied solely on egg measurements, with no thorough morphological or molecular analysis of adult worms.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The canine whipworm is a ubiquitous parasite, with high rates of infection in kennelled animals, household pets and stray dogs.

    “In general the canine whipworm is a ubiquitous parasite, with high rates of infection on kennelled animals, household pets and stray dogs.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 10 sources checked
    • cites [21] Bowman DD: Toxocara canis and Trichuris vulpis - Common dog parasites. Central Veterinary Conference Proceedings. 2009

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [31] Vanparijs O, Hermans L, van der Flaes L: Helminth and protozoan parasites in dogs and cats in Belgium. Vet Parasitol. 1991, 38: 67-73. 10.1016/0304-4017(91)90010-S. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [34] Overgaauw PA, Boersema JH: Nematode infections in dog breeding kennels in The Netherlands, with special reference to Toxocara. Vet Q. 1998, 20: 12-15. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [44] Turner T, Pegg E: A survey of patent nematode infestations in dogs. Vet Rec. 1977, 100: 284-285. 10.1136/vr.100.14.284. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [45] Haralabidis ST, Papazachariadou MG, Koutinas HF, Rallis TS: A survey on the prevalence of gastrointestinal parasites of dogs in the area of Thessaloniki, Greece. J Helminthol. 1998, 62: 45-49. 10.1017/S0022149X00011196. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [46] Papazahariadou M, Founta A, Papadopoulos E, Chliounakis S, Antoniadou-Sotiriadou K, Theodorides Y: Gastrointestinal parasites of shepherd and hunting dogs in the Serres Prefecture, Northern Greece. Vet Parasitol. 2007, 148: 170-173. 10.1016/j.vetpar.2007.05.013. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [47] Georgieva D, Ivanov A, Prelesov P: Studies on the parasitic fauna in stray dogs in the Stara Zagora region. Bulg J Vet Med. 1999, 2: 121-124.

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [48] Fok E, Szatmari V, Busak K, Rozgonyi F: Prevalence of intestinal parasites in dogs in some urban and rural areas of Hungary. Vet Q. 2001, 23: 96-98. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [49] Kornaś S, Nowosad B, Skalska M: The evaluation of Trichuris vulpis infection of stray dogs in Kraków area. Wiad Parazytol. 2002, 48: 401-406.

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [50] Blazius RD, Emerick S, Prophiro JS, Romão PR, Silva OS: Occurrence of protozoa and helminthes in faecal samples of stray dogs from Itapema City, Santa Catarina. Rev Soc Bras Med Trop. 2005, 38: 73-74. 10.1590/S0037-86822005000100018. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    T. vulpis is globally distributed with a high prevalence.

    “Trichuris vulpis is globally distributed with a high prevalence.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [5-8,21,31-59]

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationreasoning

    Household dogs may become infected through their walks in areas of high risk of infection, e.g. public places, parks and playgrounds.

    “Household dogs may become infected through their walks in areas of high risk of infection, e.g. public places, parks and playgrounds.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Premisenone given

    The ability of T. vulpis to suck blood from the host is still questioned.

    “the still questioned ability in sucking blood from the host”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationreasoning

    If T. vulpis can infect human beings, the potential public hazard may be concrete in cases of close-contact between humans and companion animals and/or with environmental eggs.

    “If one assumes that T. vulpis can infect human beings, the potential public hazard may be concrete in cases of close-contact between humans and companion animals and/or with environmental eggs.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • The authors state this as an assumption: T. vulpis can infect human beings.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Animals may suffer from bloody colitis and/or diphtheritic caecitis and thickening, ulcerative and necrotic lesions on the mucosa; severe anemia and dehydration may cause jaundice and lead to death.

    “Animals may suffer from bloody colitis and/or diphtheritic caecitis and of thickening, ulcerative and necrotic lesions on the mucosa; severe anemia and dehydration may cause jaundice and lead to the death of the animal [1-3,61,62].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 5 sources checked
    • cites [1] Soulsby EJL: Helminths, Arthropods and Protozoa of Domesticated Animals. 1982, Bailliere Tindall, 7

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [2] Bowman DD: Georgi's Parasitology for Veterinarians. 2002, Saunders Company, 7

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [3] Taylor MA, Coop RL, Wall RL: Veterinary Parasitology. 2007, Blackwell Publishing, 3

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [61] Burrows RB, Lillis WG: The whipworm as a blood sucker. J Parasitol. 1964, 50: 675-680. 10.2307/3276127. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [62] Silva AR, Araújo JV, Braga FR, Alves CD, Frassy LN: In vitro ovicidal activity of the nematophagous fungi Duddingtonia flagrans, Monacrosporium thaumasium and Pochonia chlamydosporia on Trichuris vulpis eggs. Vet Parasitol. 2010, 172: 76-79. 10.1016/j.vetpar.2010.04.034. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Eggs of Eucoleus spp. are smaller in both length and width, and have a densely striated wall with a network of anastomosing ridges in E. aerophilus or tiny pits in E. boehmi.

    “Eggs of Eucoleus spp. are smaller in both length and width, and have a densely striated wall with a network of anastomosing ridges in E. aerophilus (Figure 3) or of tiny pits in E. boehmi.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 4 sources checked
    • cites [3] Taylor MA, Coop RL, Wall RL: Veterinary Parasitology. 2007, Blackwell Publishing, 3

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [12] Traversa D, Di Cesare A, Conboy G: Canine and feline cardiopulmonary parasitic nematodes in Europe: emerging and underestimated. Parasit Vect. 2010, 3: 62-10.1186/1756-3305-3-62. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [66] Conboy GA: Helminth parasites of the canine and feline respiratory tract. Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract. 2009, 39: 1109-1126. 10.1016/j.cvsm.2009.06.006. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [67] Sloss MW, Kemp RL, Zajac AM: Veterinary Clinical Parasitology. 1994, Iowa State University Press, Ames, IA

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    T. vulpis eggs are barrel-shaped, brown-yellowish in color, with a thick and smooth shell and two mucoid polar plugs.

    “Eggs of T. vulpis are barrel-shaped, brown-yellowish in color, with a thick and smooth shell and two mucoid polar plugs (Figure 2).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [3] Taylor MA, Coop RL, Wall RL: Veterinary Parasitology. 2007, Blackwell Publishing, 3

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [66] Conboy GA: Helminth parasites of the canine and feline respiratory tract. Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract. 2009, 39: 1109-1126. 10.1016/j.cvsm.2009.06.006. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [67] Sloss MW, Kemp RL, Zajac AM: Veterinary Clinical Parasitology. 1994, Iowa State University Press, Ames, IA

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisenone given

    Infected dogs may present immunological alterations, decreased nutritional conversion, and predisposition to secondary pathogens.

    “infected dogs may present immunological alterations, decreased nutritional conversion, and predisposition to secondary pathogens.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    T. vulpis moves underneath the epithelium looking for blood and fluids, and introduces its stylet into vessels to create blood pools which are ingested.

    “These whipworms move underneath the epithelium looking for blood and fluids and, in turn, the stylet is introduced into vessels to create blood pools which are ingested [1-3,61].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 4 sources checked
    • cites [1] Soulsby EJL: Helminths, Arthropods and Protozoa of Domesticated Animals. 1982, Bailliere Tindall, 7

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [2] Bowman DD: Georgi's Parasitology for Veterinarians. 2002, Saunders Company, 7

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [3] Taylor MA, Coop RL, Wall RL: Veterinary Parasitology. 2007, Blackwell Publishing, 3

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [61] Burrows RB, Lillis WG: The whipworm as a blood sucker. J Parasitol. 1964, 50: 675-680. 10.2307/3276127. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Whipworm eggs have a specific gravity of 1.15, so a solution of more than 1.20-1.35 s.gr (e.g. zinc sulphate) should be selected to allow flotation.

    “As whipworm eggs have 1.15 s. gr., then a solution of more than 1.20-1.35 s.gr (e.g. using zinc sulphate) should be selected to allow flotation”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [63] Blagburn B: The elusive whipworm, Trichuris vulpis. Supplement to NAVC Clinician's Brief. 2008, 1-4.

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [64] Zajac A, Johnson J, King SE: Evaluation of the importance of centrifugation as a component of zinc sulfate flotation examinations. J Am Anim Hosp Assoc. 2002, 38: 221-224. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Symptoms may occur in the absence of eggs in stool samples examined using copromicroscopic methods, leading to a high risk of missed diagnosis.

    “This means that symptoms may occur in the absence of eggs in stool samples examined using copromicroscopic methods, thus leading to a high risk of missed diagnosis.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Some areas where T. vulpis is endemic have recently shown a clear spread of D. immitis and A. vasorum, and these nematodes are now present in several European countries.

    “This is of particular importance if one considers that some areas where T. vulpis is endemic have recently shown a clear spread of D. immitis and A. vasorum [12] and now these nematodes are present in several European countries (Figure 5).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [12] Traversa D, Di Cesare A, Conboy G: Canine and feline cardiopulmonary parasitic nematodes in Europe: emerging and underestimated. Parasit Vect. 2010, 3: 62-10.1186/1756-3305-3-62. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Administration of oral anthelmintics may be difficult in fractious, depressed, or moribund animals.

    “While, in general, administration of oral anthelmintics may be difficult in fractious animals or patients that are depressed or moribund [12]”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [12] Traversa D, Di Cesare A, Conboy G: Canine and feline cardiopulmonary parasitic nematodes in Europe: emerging and underestimated. Parasit Vect. 2010, 3: 62-10.1186/1756-3305-3-62. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Interpretationreasoning

    There is a rationale to use a broad-spectrum parasiticide all year long to achieve reliable sanitation of dogs against intestinal and heartworms, regardless of geographic area.

    “Given that environmental nematode eggs, including those of T. vulpis, may remain infective even in the coldest months of the year, there is a rationale to use a broad-spectrum parasiticide all year long to achieve a reliable sanitation of dogs against intestinal and heartworms, regardless of the geographic areas in which this approach may be applied.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Environmental nematode eggs, including those of T. vulpis, may remain infective even in the coldest months of the year.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The ESCCAP recommendation for frequent treatment might be applied to whipworm infection because ascarids and whipworms share features such as geographical spread, clinical importance, and high environmental resistance of eggs favoring re-infections throughout the year.

    “This suggestion might be applied also to whipworm infection considering some features shared by ascarids and whipworms, e.g. geographical spread of the parasites and clinical importance, and especially the high resistance of their eggs in the environment, which greatly favor re-infections throughout the year.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Trichuris vulpis eggs are highly resistant and long-lived, representing a major barrier for controlling trichurosis, especially when they contaminate soil in shady and damp areas.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisenone given

    Milbemycin oxime is licensed as an oral formulation for treating and controlling whipworms, roundworms and hookworms, reducing the level of infection by A. vasorum, preventing disease by D. immitis and, in some EU countries, controlling some canine mites.

    “This molecule is licensed as an oral formulation for treating and controlling whipworms, roundworms and hookworms, reducing the level of infection by A. vasorum, preventing disease by D. immitis and, in some EU countries, controlling some canine mites.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisereasoning

    When associated with the insect growth regulator lufenuron, milbemycin oxime provides flea prevention and control, as well as treatment and control of intestinal nematodes and prevention of dirofilariosis.

    “When associated with the insect growth regulator lufenuron this molecule provides flea prevention and control, as well as treatment and control of intestinal nematodes and prevention of dirofilariosis.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Prevention and/or control of D. immitis and A. vasorum requires monthly administration of macrocyclic lactones to dogs exposed to mosquito bites (D. immitis) or ingestion of gastropods (A. vasorum).

    “The prevention and/or control of these emerging nematodes requires the monthly administration of macrocyclic lactones to dogs exposed to mosquito bites for D. immitis and to ingestion of gastropods for A. vasorum (rev. in [12]).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [12] Traversa D, Di Cesare A, Conboy G: Canine and feline cardiopulmonary parasitic nematodes in Europe: emerging and underestimated. Parasit Vect. 2010, 3: 62-10.1186/1756-3305-3-62. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Some broad spectrum macrocyclic lactones (e.g. moxidectin, milbemycin oxime) allow for treatment and possibly prevention and/or control not only of T. vulpis infection and other intestinal helminthes but also of major extra-intestinal nematodes and ectoparasites.

    “Some broad spectrum macrocyclic lactones (e.g. moxidectin, milbemycin oxime) allow for treatment and, possibly, prevention and/or control, not only of T. vulpis infection and other intestinal helminthes but also of major extra-intestinal nematodes and ectoparasites.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    In the Swiss study, inappropriate administration or wrong dosage were considered unlikely, and the authors hypothesized that the reoccurrence of T. vulpis and other parasite eggs in the faeces of treated animals was probably due to constant re-infections and that the infection risk in privately owned dogs cannot be ruled out despite regular deworming.

    “In this study, as an inappropriate administration or wrong dosage were considered unlikely, the authors hypothesized that the reoccurrence of T. vulpis and other parasite eggs in the faeces of treated animals was probably due to constant re-infections and that the infection risk in privately owned dogs cannot be ruled out despite regular deworming [37].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [37] Sager H, Moret ChS, Grimm F, Deplazes P, Doherr MG, Gottstein B: Coprological study on intestinal helminths in Swiss dogs: temporal aspects of anthelminthic treatment. Parasitol Res. 2006, 98: 333-338. 10.1007/s00436-005-0093-8. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given

    Key points in controlling T. vulpis infection are the long period required by the larvae to reach adulthood and the frequent possibilities of the animals being re-infected.

    “Key points in controlling T. vulpis infection are the long period required by the larvae to reach adulthood and the frequent possibilities of the animals of being re-infected.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Annual or twice-yearly treatments for Toxocara spp. do not reduce the risk of patent infections, and ESCCAP recommends treatment at least four times per year or monthly.

    “The European Scientific Counsel Companion Animal Parasites (ESCCAP) recently advised that annual or twice yearly treatments for Toxocara spp. does not reduce the risk of patent infections, thus a treatment frequency of at least 4 times per year, or even a monthly worm treatment, is a general recommendation [54,76].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [54] Genchi M, Ferroglio T, Traldi G, Passera S, Mezzano G, Genchi C: Fecalizzazione ambientale e rischio parassitario nelle città di Milano e Torino. Professione Veterinaria. 2007, 40: 17-18. (in Italian)

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [76] European Scientific Counsel Companion Animal Parasites: Worm Control in Dogs and Cats. ESCCAP Guidelines. 2010, 2

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Whipworm larvae take about three months to reach adulthood, so patent infections might sometimes recur after administration of a single drug dose after the surviving larvae have matured sexually.

    “whipworm larvae take about three months to reach adulthood, so patent infections might sometime recur after administration of a single drug dose after the surviving larvae have matured sexually.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisereasoning

    If milbemycin oxime is associated with praziquantel, the formulation is licensed for the treatment of intestinal nematodes and tapeworms, as well as the prevention of D. immitis and the reduction of the level of infection by A. vasorum.

    “If milbemycin oxime is associated with praziquantel the formulation is licensed for the treatment of intestinal nematodes and tapeworms, as well as the prevention of D. immitis and the reduction of the level of infection by A. vasorum.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisereasoning

    This spot-on formulation also provides efficacy against roundworms and hookworms, treatment and prevention of A. vasorum infection, preventative chemoprophylaxis for D. immitis, treatment and prevention of fleas, treatment of lice and control of mites.

    “This spot-on formulation also provides efficacy against roundworms and hookworms, treatment and prevention of A. vasorum infection, preventative chemoprophylaxis for D. immitis, treatment and prevention of fleas, treatment of lice and control of mites.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationcitation

    It cannot be ruled out that new favorable epidemiological drivers influencing the spread of extra-intestinal parasitic nematodes could favor the occurrence of more common species and possibly new associations in different parasitic compositions.

    “In fact, it cannot be ruled out that the new favorable epidemiological drivers which are influencing the spreading of extra-intestinal parasitic nematodes [12] could favor the occurrence of more common species and, possibly, new associations in different parasitic compositions.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [12] Traversa D, Di Cesare A, Conboy G: Canine and feline cardiopulmonary parasitic nematodes in Europe: emerging and underestimated. Parasit Vect. 2010, 3: 62-10.1186/1756-3305-3-62. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Control of canine trichurosis requires integrated approaches mainly based on hygiene measures, in addition to anthelmintic administration.

    “Other than administrations of an anthelmintic, control of canine trichurosis requires integrated approaches mainly based on hygiene measures.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Trichuris vulpis eggs are highly resistant and long-lived, representing a major barrier for controlling trichurosis, especially when they contaminate soil in shady and damp areas.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    A recent study has evidenced that T. trichiura and T. suis can be considered closely related but genetically different species.

    “even if a recent study has evidenced that T. trichiura and T. suis can be considered to be closely related but genetically different species [91].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [91] Cutillas C, Callejón R, de Rojas M, Tewes B, Ubeda JM, Ariza C, Guevara DC: Trichuris suis and Trichuris trichiura are different nematode species. Acta Trop. 2009, 111: 299-307. 10.1016/j.actatropica.2009.05.011. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    T. trichiura has been considered as synonymous with Trichuris suis affecting suids.

    “while T. trichiura has been considered as synonymous with Trichuris suis affecting suids [68].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [68] Cutillas C, de Rojas M, Ariza C, Ubeda JM, Guevara D: Molecular identification of Trichuris vulpis and Trichuris suis isolated from different hosts. Parasitol Res. 2007, 100: 383-389. 10.1007/s00436-006-0275-z. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given

    Heterogeneous information on the dissemination of T. vulpis in canine populations in Europe and elsewhere, and the lack of updated epidemiological data in the past decade, should prompt further studies.

    “Heterogeneous information on the dissemination of T. vulpis in canine populations in Europe as elsewhere, and the lack of updated epidemiological data in the past decade should prompt further studies.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    T. suis has proved to infect humans and has been demonstrated to be a possible new, safe, and efficacious alternative for the management of intestinal diseases in humans.

    “Nevertheless, T. suis has proved to infect humans and demonstrated to be a possible new, safe, and efficacious alternative for the management of intestinal diseases in humans.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [92] Summers RW, Elliott DE, Urban JF, Thompson R, Weinstock JV: Trichuris suis therapy in Crohn's disease. Gut. 2005, 54: 87-90. 10.1136/gut.2004.041749. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    T. vulpis has been found in urban faecal samples and in kennelled and private dogs in central and southern Italian regions where D. immitis and A. vasorum have recently spread, with infection rates from low to up to 60%.

    “Worthy of note is that T. vulpis has been found in urban faecal samples and in kennelled and private dogs from low rates of infection to high values up to 60% [52,57, Traversa unpublished] (Table 1) in central and southern Italian regions where D. immitis and A. vasorum have recently spread [12].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [52,57, Traversa unpublished]

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [12] Traversa D, Di Cesare A, Conboy G: Canine and feline cardiopulmonary parasitic nematodes in Europe: emerging and underestimated. Parasit Vect. 2010, 3: 62-10.1186/1756-3305-3-62. source

      Not checked in the free run.

48 of 48

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    T. vulpis can infect human beings.

    “If one assumes that T. vulpis can infect human beings, the potential public hazard may be concrete in cases of close-contact between humans and companion animals and/or with environmental eggs.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Larval and adult stages of T. vulpis lack susceptibility to some common canine anthelmintics.

    “The lack of susceptibility of larval and adult stages of T. vulpis to some common canine anthelmintics makes the choice of the molecule to be used absolutely crucial.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Ivermectin is licensed to prevent canine infection by D. immitis but not angiostrongylosis, and to treat infections with hookworms and ascarids, but not with T. vulpis.

    “Ivermectin is licensed to prevent canine infection by D. immitis but not angiostrongylosis, and to treat infections with hookworms and ascarids, but not with T. vulpis.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Trichuris vulpis eggs are highly resistant and long-lived, representing a major barrier for controlling trichurosis, especially when they contaminate soil in shady and damp areas.

    “The high resistance and longevity of T. vulpis eggs represent a major barrier for controlling trichurosis, especially when they contaminate soil in shady and damp areas.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Environmental nematode eggs, including those of T. vulpis, may remain infective even in the coldest months of the year.

    “environmental nematode eggs, including those of T. vulpis, may remain infective even in the coldest months of the year”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Trichuris vulpis has been incriminated as a zoonotic nematode but never ultimately demonstrated to be so.

    “Trichuris vulpis has been incriminated as a zoonotic nematode but never ultimately demonstrated to be so”
6 of 6

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

  • When milbemycin oxime is associated with lufenuron the combination is effective against immature fleas.

    “When milbemycin oxime is associated with praziquantel the formulation can be used also for tapeworms, and when associated with lufenuron the combination is effective also against immature fleas [5,6].”

    From Fleas infesting pets in the era of emerging extra-intestinal nematodes (2013) · cites this paper as [5]

  • Where risk of heartworm transmission is considered low, pets may be infected with intestinal nematodes throughout the year.

    “This is particularly true where the risk of heartworm transmission is considered low but pets may be infected with intestinal nematodes (e.g. whipworms, hookworms, roundworms) throughout the year [5,6,149].”

    From Fleas infesting pets in the era of emerging extra-intestinal nematodes (2013) · cites this paper as [5]

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

2 of the 82 references couldn’t be matched to a known paper.

Research works printed but not linked: 16

  1. Bowman DD: Georgi's Parasitology for Veterinarians. 2002, Saunders Company, 7
  2. Bowman DD: Toxocara canis and Trichuris vulpis - Common dog parasites. Central Veterinary Conference Proceedings. 2009
  3. Wagner ED: Observations on "large" Trichuris eggs in man. Proc Helminthol Soc Wash. 1979, 46: 155-157.
  4. Franc M, Cadiergues MC, Marchand A, Bourdoiseau G, Bussieras J: Intestinal parasitism in dogs and cats. Results of an epidemiological survey in France. Rév Méd Vét. 1997, 148: 247-250.
  5. Crespo M, Rosa F, Morgado M, Ferreirinha D, Cerejo A, Madeira M: Intestinal Parasites in Dogs from the Center-west of Portugal. Proceedings of the11th International Congress of Parasitology (ICOPA XI). 2006, Glasgow, Scotland, 311-314.
  6. Georgieva D, Ivanov A, Prelesov P: Studies on the parasitic fauna in stray dogs in the Stara Zagora region. Bulg J Vet Med. 1999, 2: 121-124.
  7. Poglayen G, Giannetto S, Macrì B, Garippa G, Scala A, Cambosu C, Giangaspero A, Paoletti B, Montauti AE, Traldi G, Habluetzel A: Canine zoonosis by enviromental faecalization. Proceedings of the XXI SoIPa Congress. 2000, Padova, Italy, 220-
  8. Lia R, La Montanara C, Leone N, Pantone A, Llazari A, Puccini V: Canine helminthic fauna and environmental faecalization in the town of Bari. Proceedings of the XXII SoIPa Congress. 2002, Torino, Italy, 92-
  9. Genchi M, Ferroglio T, Traldi G, Passera S, Mezzano G, Genchi C: Fecalizzazione ambientale e rischio parassitario nelle città di Milano e Torino. Professione Veterinaria. 2007, 40: 17-18. (in Italian)
  10. Zanzani S, Di Cerbo AR, Musella V, Rinaldi L, Maghenzani C, Mandredi MT: Environmental faecalization in Milan, northern Italy: prevalence of canine intestinal parasites and evaluation of health risk. Proceedings of the XXVI SoIPa Congress. 2010, Perugia, Italy, 342-
  11. Perrucci S, Glorioso A, Tarantino C: Parassitosi nei canili e nei gattili. Obiettivi e Documenti Veterinari. 2001, 22: 37-40.
  12. Blagburn B: The elusive whipworm, Trichuris vulpis. Supplement to NAVC Clinician's Brief. 2008, 1-4.
  13. Bowman DD: Respiratory System Parasites of the Dog and Cat (Part I): Nasal Mucosa and Sinuses, and Respiratory Parenchyma. Companion and Exotic Animal Parasitology, International Veterinary Information Service. 2000
  14. Anonymous: Evaluation of the Effectiveness of a Combination of Imidacloprid and Moxidectin against Natural Infections with Trichuris vulpis in Dogs. 2006, Freedom of information summary, Advantage Multi for dogs, NADA 141- 251, Federal Drug Administration, 25-27.
  15. EMEA: Advocate Public Assessment report 2009WC500060915. 2009, 44-45.
  16. European Scientific Counsel Companion Animal Parasites: Worm Control in Dogs and Cats. ESCCAP Guidelines. 2010, 2

Cited by

Sorted by citations

Related

Authors
Traversa, D.
Affiliations
University of Teramo (IT)
Corresponding author
Traversa, Donato
ORCID
Traversa, Donato
Venue
Parasites & Vectors
Publisher
Springer Science and Business Media LLC
Published
2011-03-08
Volume
4
Issue
1
Pages
32-32
ISSN
1756-3305 (ISSN-L)
DOI
10.1186/1756-3305-4-32
PMC
PMC3063211
OpenAlex
W2160934224
Semantic Scholar
6fcb491633d71a17b4f2c8d44429fcebfb492922
Cited by
148
References
82
Citations by year
2026: 10 · 2025: 8 · 2024: 11 · 2023: 12 · 2022: 19 · 2021: 13 · 2020: 6 · 2019: 5 · 2018: 8 · 2017: 9 · 2016: 6 · 2015: 17 · 2014: 8 · 2013: 8 · 2012: 8
FWCI
1.51
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
Locations
  • Parasites & Vectors (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
  • DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
  • UniTERAMO Research Catalog (University of Teramo) (submittedVersion)
Topics
  • Health Sciences › Veterinary › Small Animals › Helminth infection and control
  • Health Sciences › Medicine › Pathology and Forensic Medicine › Parasitic infections in humans and animals
  • Life Sciences › Immunology and Microbiology › Parasitology › Parasites and Host Interactions
Keywords
Trichuris vulpis, intestinal nematodes, zoonoses, diagnosis, treatment, stray dogs
MeSH terms
Animals, Anthelmintics, Dog Diseases, Dogs, Trichuriasis, Trichuris, Zoonoses

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Claims read by deepseek-v4.1-flash under definition version 3 (extract-v3) on 2026-10-10.

Classified by jev-1.13-20260917 (gold-guideline-v0.2) on 2026-10-10.

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