Is Prolonging the Lifetime of Passive Durable Products a Low-Hanging Fruit of a Circular Economy? A Multiple Case Study

Not every PSS contributes to a circular economy.

“Although the idea is simple, it is noted in literature that not every PSS contributes to a CE, e.g., [6]”

• cites [6] Kjaer, 2019, Product/Service-Systems for a Circular Economy: The Route to Decoupling Economic Growth from Resource Consumption?, J. Ind. Ecol. sourceCould not verify

  The available Abstract-labelled passages contain keywords and bibliographic information, but no substantive statement about whether every PSS contributes to a circular economy. Searches for that claim and for related points about resource savings and rebound effects found no passage that addresses it. (LLM, conf=0.73)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Redesigning company offerings toward PSS is not without challenges.

“However, redesigning company offerings toward PSS in not without challenges [38,39]”

• cites [38] Martinez, 2010, Challenges in transforming manufacturing organisations into product-service providers, J. Manufact. Technol. Manag. sourceSupported
• cites [39] Matschewsky, 2018, Designing and providing integrated product-service systems–challenges, opportunities and solutions resulting from prescriptive approaches in two industrial companies, Int. J. Prod. Res. sourceSupported

Extending the lifetime of passive durable products has high potential for environmental improvement.

“the extension of the lifetime of passive durable products, i.e., products that do not consume energy or materials during the use phase, has been found by researchers to have high potential [18][19][20].”

• cites [18] Willskytt, 2019, Resource efficiency of consumables–Life cycle assessment of incontinence products, Resour. Conserv. Recycl. sourcePartly supported

  The Introduction describes longevity strategies for durable products, and the Conclusions report substantial environmental savings from reusing part of an incontinence product. The paper does not establish that extending the lifetime of passive durable products specifically has high environmental-improvement potential; its reusable product requires washing and drying between uses. No page numbers are available in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.83)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites [19] Iraldo, 2017, Is product durability better for environment and for economic efficiency? A comparative assessment applying LCA and LCC to two energy-intensive products, J. Clean. Prod. sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [20] Cooper, 2017, The environmental impacts of reuse: A review, J. Ind. Ecol. sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

For a PSS to contribute to a circular economy, it must be an attractive business for companies so that it actually gets implemented.

“The first is that a PSS, or other circular measure, must be an attractive business for companies so that it actually gets implemented [11][12][13]”

• cites [11] Kirchherr, 2018, Barriers to the Circular Economy: Evidence From the European Union (EU), Ecol. Econ. sourceSupported
• cites [12] Babbitt, 2018, Closing the loop on circular economy research: From theory to practice and back again, Resour. Conserv. Recycl. sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [13] Lieder, 2016, Towards circular economy implementation: A comprehensive review in context of manufacturing industry, J. Clean. Prod. sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

The higher the level of integration of the product and the service, e.g., result-oriented versus product-oriented, the more change within the company is required to do it successfully.

“the higher the level of integration of the product and the service, e.g., result-oriented versus product-oriented, the more change within the company is required to do it successfully [40].”

• cites [40] Bigdeli, 2018, Measuring servitization progress and outcome: The case of ‘advanced services’, Prod. Plan. Control sourcePartly supported

  The Introduction describes substantial organisational change needed to deliver advanced services, including a service function, new sales capabilities and wider organisational integration. It distinguishes advanced services from product-support and base services, but does not state that each higher level of product–service integration requires more change, or compare result-oriented with product-oriented offerings. (LLM, conf=0.84)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

The ones that focus on prolonging the lifetime of products using both LCA and LCC analyze the effect of increasing the durability of active products instead of replacing them with more efficient products.

“The ones that focus on prolonging the lifetime of products using both LCA and LCC analyze the effect of increasing the durability of active products instead of replacing them with more efficient products (e.g., [19,43,44]).”

• cites [19] Iraldo, 2017, Is product durability better for environment and for economic efficiency? A comparative assessment applying LCA and LCC to two energy-intensive products, J. Clean. Prod. sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [43] Bobba, 2016, Environmental and economic assessment of durability of energy-using products: Method and application to a case-study vacuum cleaner, J. Clean. Prod. sourceSupported
• cites [44] Kim, 2006, Optimal household refrigerator replacement policy for life cycle energy, greenhouse gas emissions, and cost, Energy Policy sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

The three midpoint indicators (GWP, AP, EP) are often cross-correlated.

“These indicators, however, are often cross-correlated [54]”

• cites [54] Janssen, 2016, Life cycle impacts of ethanol production from spruce wood chips under high-gravity conditions, Biotechnol. Biofuels sourcePartly supported

  The Results and discussion section, “Cross-correlations between impact categories,” reports very high cross-correlations (r² > 0.9) among the four categories studied, including GWP, AP and EP. The Conclusions explicitly limit this finding to the current case; the paper does not establish that these indicators are often cross-correlated across other settings. (LLM, conf=0.84)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

There is not a linear relationship between cost and environmental impact.

“there is not a linear relationship between cost and environmental impact, as discussed in the literature, e.g., [60][61][62].”

• cites [60] Hoogmartens, 2014, Bridging the gap between LCA, LCC and CBA as sustainability assessment tools, Environ. Impact Assess. sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [61] Hunkeler, D., Lichtenvort, K., and Rebitzer, G. (2008). Environmental Life Cycle Costing, CRC Press. sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [62] Gluch, 2004, The life cycle costing (LCC) approach: A conceptual discussion of its usefulness for environmental decision-making, Build. Environ. sourcePartly supported

  Section 3.4, “A monetary unit” (page unavailable), says that monetary calculations omit some environmentally related costs and that a single monetary figure cannot capture every aspect of a complex environmental problem. This supports the broader point that cost is an incomplete guide to environmental impact, but the paper does not establish the specific claim that their relationship is non-linear. (LLM, conf=0.78)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

The companies participating in the present study emphasized financial implications as the main motivator for change.

“This was emphasized as the main motivator for change by the companies participating in the present study”

• cites [25] Figge, 2016, Resource duration as a managerial indicator for Circular Economy performance, J. Clean. Prod. sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [34] Laasch, O., and Conaway, R. (2017). Responsible Business: The Textbook for Management Learning, Competence and Innovation, Routledge. sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [59] Cordella, 2016, Analysis of key environmental areas in the design and labelling of furniture products: Application of a screening approach based on a literature review of LCA studies, Sustain. Prod. Consum. sourceCould not verify

  The Results and discussion section describes a review of furniture life-cycle assessment studies, not findings about companies participating in the citing authors’ study. Searches for financial implications, company motivations, and a main motivator for change found no passage addressing that claim. Page numbers were not available in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.76)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Financial barriers are only one set of barriers to a company implementing circular measures or strategies.

“Financial barriers, although crucial, are only one set of barriers to a company implementing circular measures or strategies [11,15].”

• cites [11] Kirchherr, 2018, Barriers to the Circular Economy: Evidence From the European Union (EU), Ecol. Econ. sourceSupported
• cites [15] Mont, O., Plepys, A., Whalen, K., and Nußholz, J.L. (2019, June 15). Business Model Innovation for a Circular Economy: Drivers and Barriers for the Swedish Industry—The Voice of REES Companies. Available online: http://lup.lub.lu.se/record/833402ef-b4d4-4541-a10e-34d1e89d2146.Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

The reduction in environmental impact was mainly influenced by the number of reuses and the relative environmental burden of the components whose lifetime was prolonged.

“This reduction was 45-72% for most cases and mainly influenced by the number of reuses and the relative environmental burden of the components whose lifetime was prolonged.”

Extraction and production dominated the environmental impact in the cases.

“The environmental impact (measured as global warming potential over the life cycle) was reduced for all cases because extraction and production dominated the impact.”

The costs for the company, measured as LCC from the manufacturer's perspective, decreased by 8-37%.

“The costs for the company (measured as LCC from the manufacturer's perspective) decreased too by 8-37%.”

The reduction in environmental impact was 45-72% for most cases.

“This reduction was 45-72% for most cases and mainly influenced by the number of reuses and the relative environmental burden of the components whose lifetime was prolonged.”

The environmental impact, measured as global warming potential over the life cycle, was reduced for all five cases.

“The environmental impact (measured as global warming potential over the life cycle) was reduced for all cases because extraction and production dominated the impact.”

The companies were willing to implement the changes.

“The decreases in both LCA and LCC results, as well as the willingness of the companies to implement the changes, demonstrate that this measure can be financially attractive for companies to implement and effectively contribute to a circular economy.”

The GWP and LCC man decrease as the number of uses increase.

“The figure shows that the GWP and LCC man decrease as the number of uses increase.”

Cost savings in the circular offering were limited since the price of the textile components replaced during refurbishment is high (Production S).

“Cost savings in the circular offering were limited since the price of the textile components replaced during refurbishment is high (Production S).”

• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: The durable components of the beach flag and event tent were reused 9 times during product lifetime.

Together, the cost of the durable parts (Production D) and the textile parts (Production R) amounted to 66% and 84% of the total life cycle cost for the BAU flag and tent, respectively.

“Together, the cost of the durable parts (Production D) and the textile parts (Production R) amounted to 66% and 84% of the total life cycle cost for the BAU flag and tent, respectively.”

• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: The durable components of the beach flag and event tent were reused 9 times during product lifetime.

In one case (Company C), a modular design that allowed for more efficient repair was implemented.

“In one case (Company C), a modular design that allowed for more efficient repair was implemented.”

For all circular offerings, product lifetime was extended through repair or refurbishment.

“For all circular offerings, product lifetime was extended through repair or refurbishment.”

The cost in the BAU offering was dominated by the price of the physical components.

“The cost in the BAU offering was dominated by the price of the physical components (Figure 2c,e).”

• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: The durable components of the beach flag and event tent were reused 9 times during product lifetime.

The GWP of the transportation related to repair activities was negligible.

“The GWP of the transportation related to repair activities was negligible.”

The decrease in the GWP for both the beach flag and the event tent drops sharply at the beginning, then flattens towards the end.

“The decrease in the GWP for both the beach flag (Figure 3a) and the event tent (Figure 3c) drops sharply at the beginning, then flattens towards the end.”

The cost for repainting the doors of the locker was significantly lower than the cost for replacing a whole locker.

“The cost for repainting the doors of the locker was significantly lower than the cost for replacing a whole locker.”

In the environmental profile, the GWP for both products was dominated by Production D of the durable parts in the BAU offering (87% and 74%, respectively).

“In that profile, the GWP for both products was dominated by Production D of the durable parts (fiberglass pole and steel cross-base for the flag and aluminum frame and steel frame weights for the tent) in the BAU offering (87% and 74%, respectively).”

• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: The durable components of the beach flag and event tent were reused 9 times during product lifetime.

The environmental impacts are more tied to the production process and materials than costs are.

“The environmental impacts, however, are more tied to the production process and materials.”

• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: The durable components of the beach flag and event tent were reused 9 times during product lifetime.

The improvements became less prominent if the product was reused 5 or 10 times.

“However, the improvements became less prominent if the product was reused 5 or 10 times.”

For the recycling bin, the environmental analysis shows that up to 35 repair cycles are beneficial in comparison with replacement with a new bin.

“The environmental analysis shows that up to 35 repair cycles are beneficial in comparison with replacement with a new bin, while costs allow for only two repair cycles before replacement is preferable.”

The production of textile spare parts (Production S) was not negligible in terms of GWP in the circular offering.

“Nevertheless, the production of textile spare parts (Production S) was not negligible in terms of GWP in the circular offering.”

• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: The durable components of the beach flag and event tent were reused 9 times during product lifetime.

In the case of the recycling bin, there was a huge difference between the GWP and the LCCman.

“In the case of the recycling bin, there was a huge difference between the GWP and the LCC man (Figure 6a,b, respectively).”

Most of the environmental benefits of the circular offering were obtained after 4-5 uses.

“Most of the environmental benefits of the circular offering were obtained after 4-5 uses.”

The circular offering was estimated to prolong the lifetime of the bin to 15 years, as opposed to 7.5 years in the BAU offering.

“This was estimated to prolong the lifetime of the bin to 15 years, as opposed to 7.5 years in the BAU offering.”

Reusing the durable components of the tent yields higher cost savings than reusing the durable components of the beach flag.

“Finally, a comparison of the results for the event tent and the beach flag shows that reusing the durable components of the tent yields higher cost savings than reusing the durable components of the beach flag.”

• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: The durable components of the beach flag and event tent were reused 9 times during product lifetime.

The influence of distribution costs was especially pronounced for the recycling bin where the distribution cost in the repair phase became higher than the cost of producing the product's physical components (Production D and Production R).

“The influence of distribution costs was especially pronounced for the recycling bin where the distribution cost in the repair phase (for distributing two lids to the customers) became higher than the cost of producing the product's physical components (Production D and Production R).”

For the locker, the cradle-to-gate GWP of painting the doors, which constitutes a large part of Production R, was around 24% in the BAU offering.

“For the locker, however, the cradle-to-gate GWP of painting the doors, which constitutes a large part of Production R, was around 24% in the BAU offering.”

• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: The metal parts would be sent to recycling, and the wood parts would be sent to incineration at the EOL of the product.

Some costs, mainly labor-related ones, such as marketing and sales, design and development, and distribution costs, were the same for the BAU and circular offerings, while others changed.

“The first observation is that some costs, mainly labor-related ones, such as marketing and sales, design and development, and distribution costs, were the same for the BAU and circular offerings, while others changed (Figure 2c,e).”

• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: The durable components of the beach flag and event tent were reused 9 times during product lifetime.

The LCC man for the beach flag and the event tent decreased in a more linear manner, but the rate of decrease was limited.

“The LCC man for the beach flag (Figure 3b) and the event tent (Figure 3d) decreased in a more linear manner, but the rate of decrease was limited.”

In the circular offering, the LCC man was reduced by 12-18% compared to BAU.

“The LCC man was reduced by 12-18% in the circular offering.”

• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: The number of re-uses of the products estimated by suppliers is an accurate representation of what could be, or already is, implemented.
• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: Each pole is expected to maintain a good condition for 10 events.
• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: The tent frame and weights are estimated to be used 10 times before EOL.
• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: At EOL, metal parts are sent to recycling, while textile and fiberglass parts are sent to incineration with energy recovery.

The proportional environmental improvements were largest for the beach flag and the tent.

“and largest for the beach flag and the tent.”

Prolonging the lifetime of components with the highest environmental impacts significantly influences environmental benefits.

“The results also demonstrated that prolonging the lifetime of components with the highest environmental impacts significantly influences environmental benefits.”

Company C incurred an additional maintenance cost and environmental burden that the other companies did not.

“(i) Costs not related to production: Based on its business model, Company C incurred an additional cost (and environmental burden) that the other companies did not: maintenance cost (Figure 8c,d).”

• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: Similar supply chains were assumed for the other components of the waste inlet.
• AssumptionRests on an assumption: At the end of life of the waste inlet, the metal parts are sent to recycling.
• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The steel for the inlet's body is produced in Sweden.

The components from the flag and tent whose lifetime was prolonged contributed the most to the total environmental impacts for the offering.

“This is partly because the components from the flag and tent whose lifetime was prolonged contributed the most to the total environmental impacts for the offering (made out of steel, aluminum, and fiberglass)”

There is potential to reduce the life cycle costs for the manufacturer.

“It was found that there is potential to reduce the life cycle costs for the manufacturer”

In none of the cases did return transports, repair/refurbish activities, or the travels of maintenance personnel outweigh the environmental benefits of the circular offerings.

“In none of the cases did return transports, repair/refurbish activities, such as repainting the locker doors, or the travels of maintenance personnel outweigh the environmental benefits of the circular offerings.”

When focusing on the component (the door), the environmental improvement was substantial.

“However, when focusing on the component, i.e., the door, the environmental improvement was substantial.”

The environmental impact was dominated by the production of the durable parts in this study.

“since the environmental impact was dominated by the production of the durable parts in this study”

The new door (circular) contains slightly more material than the old one (BAU).

“However, it was seen in the results that the new door (circular) contains slightly more material than the old one (BAU).”

• Also stated in: § 4.3.3. Sensitivity Analysis · plain

  “the more circular door has marginally more aluminum in it”

The lifetime of the recycling bin and lockers was only doubled.

“their lifetime was only doubled.”

The flag and tent were used ten times, reducing the environmental impact of their production by a factor of ten per function.

“and partly because they were used ten times, reducing the environmental impact of their production by a factor of ten per function.”

In the case of the recycling bins, a high flat transportation cost was applied, whether delivering a whole recycling bin or only the lids during repair.

“This was clearly exemplified in the case of the recycling bins, where a high flat transportation cost was applied, whether delivering a whole recycling bin or only the lids during repair.”

From the first door replacement onwards, the circular offering becomes increasingly more economically beneficial.

“from the first door replacement onwards, the circular offering becomes increasingly more beneficial both environmentally and economically.”

In contrast to Companies A and B, both the BAU and circular offerings for Company C included a repair scheme.

“(ii) Costs and environmental impacts of the dominant phase: In contrast to Companies A and B, both the BAU and the circular offerings included a repair scheme.”

• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: Similar supply chains were assumed for the other components of the waste inlet.
• AssumptionRests on an assumption: At the end of life of the waste inlet, the metal parts are sent to recycling.
• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The steel for the inlet's body is produced in Sweden.

In the inlet case, designing for maintenance significantly reduced LCC compared to just adding maintenance.

“The inlet case, where designing for maintenance significantly reduced LCC compared to just adding maintenance”

There is a limit to how many times products can be repaired.

“going back to Figure 6 shows that there is a limit to how many times products can be repaired”

The cost reductions were less pronounced than the reduction of the environmental impact.

“However, it was found that the cost reductions were less pronounced than the reduction of the environmental impact.”

In the LCCman for the recycling bin, the repair entailed a high transportation cost, which would increase the manufacturer's cost rapidly as more repairs are done.

“However, in the LCC man , the repair entailed a high transportation cost, which would increase the manufacturer's cost rapidly as more repairs are done.”

The manufacturer's cost can be reduced by extending the use of passive durable products.

“Although this research found that the manufacturer's cost can be reduced by extending the use of passive durable products”

If the focus is only on the door (production and repair phases) for the waste inlet, an improvement of around 60% can be found for all categories.

“Alternatively, if the focus is only on the door (production and repair phases), as shown in Figure 8b, an improvement of around 60% can be found for all categories.”

• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: Similar supply chains were assumed for the other components of the waste inlet.
• AssumptionRests on an assumption: At the end of life of the waste inlet, the metal parts are sent to recycling.
• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The steel for the inlet's body is produced in Sweden.

The LCA results documented environmental benefits for all of the more circular offerings.

“The LCA results documented environmental benefits for all of the more circular offerings”

Increasing the number of uses improves the results, up to a limit.

“the present study showed that increasing the number of uses improves the results, up to a limit, as viewed through the lens of sensitivity analysis.”

The proportional environmental improvements were smaller for the recycling bin and lockers.

“The improvements were smaller for the recycling bin and lockers”

The inlet had the lowest proportional environmental improvement.

“The inlet had the lowest proportional environmental improvement”

For the locker, the GWP and the LCCman results are in line with each other.

“For the locker, the GWP and the LCC man results (Figure 6c,d, respectively) are in line with each other, and the breakeven point occurred at five (5) and four (4) refurbishments, respectively.”

If the door is never damaged during its lifetime, the BAU offering is slightly more environmentally friendly than the circular one.

“if the door is never damaged during its lifetime, the BAU offering is slightly more environmentally friendly than the circular one (Figure 9a)”

For the recycling bin, costs allow for only two repair cycles before replacement is preferable.

“The environmental analysis shows that up to 35 repair cycles are beneficial in comparison with replacement with a new bin, while costs allow for only two repair cycles before replacement is preferable.”

There are challenges due to the effect of other influencing factors, e.g., labor costs.

“However, there are challenges due to the effect of other influencing factors, e.g., labor costs.”

If the door is never damaged during its lifetime, the BAU and circular offerings have the same cost.

“while having the same cost (Figure 9b)”

The higher the share of production-related costs of the component being prolonged in the LCC man, the higher the potential for savings and making the circular option economically viable.

“and that the higher the share of production-related costs of the component being prolonged in the LCC man , the higher the potential for savings and making the circular option economically viable.”

Extending the lifetime of the five passive, durable products included in this research displayed, without exception, cost reductions for the manufacturer from a life cycle perspective.

“Similar to LCA, extending the lifetime of the five passive, durable products included in this research displayed, without exception, cost reductions for the manufacturer from a life cycle perspective.”

The company buys both doors at the same price.

“The reason is that the company buys both doors at the same price”

The lifetime of a small component in a large product was prolonged in the inlet case.

“because the lifetime of a small component in a large product was prolonged, i.e., parts of the inlets' door.”

The most impacting components' lifetime was extended for the recycling bin and lockers.

“even though their most impacting components' lifetime was extended, i.e., the steel body and wooden parts, respectively”

The proportional environmental improvements were significant for all the products except the inlet.

“The proportional environmental improvements were significant for all the products except the inlet”

From the first door replacement onwards, the circular offering becomes increasingly more environmentally beneficial.

“from the first door replacement onwards, the circular offering becomes increasingly more beneficial both environmentally and economically.”

The companies in the present study expected customers to derive equal function from the circular offerings as from the BAU.

“The companies in the present study expected customers to derive equal function from the circular offerings as from the BAU, but customers were not necessarily expected to be willing to pay the same price for repainted locker doors as for a new locker, for example.”

Some labor costs were almost fixed in both offerings, e.g., administration and other costs were incurred by the addition of services, thus preventing higher savings from being achieved.

“It was found that some labor costs were almost fixed in both offerings, e.g., administration and other costs were incurred by the addition of services, thus preventing higher savings from being achieved.”

The length of the lifetime extension matters for improvement potential, i.e., the number of times a durable component can be reused or the length of time for which its lifetime is extended, without compromising quality.

“The main factors that affected improvement potential were, first, the proportion of the impact that is caused by the production of durable components (the larger the proportion, the greater the benefits from lifetime extension), and second, the length of the lifetime extension matters, i.e., the number of times a durable component can be reused or the length of time for which its lifetime is ext”

The cases examined in the present study, with the exception of the recycling bin, have either been implemented already or are going to be implemented.

“Since the cases examined in the present study, with the exception of the recycling bin, have either been implemented already or are going to be implemented, they demonstrate that one way to overcome barriers and, consequently, prolong the lifetime of passive durable products is through the addition of services.”

The companies in the present study did not necessarily expect customers to be willing to pay the same price for repainted locker doors as for a new locker.

“The companies in the present study expected customers to derive equal function from the circular offerings as from the BAU, but customers were not necessarily expected to be willing to pay the same price for repainted locker doors as for a new locker, for example.”

Environmental impacts of passive durable products are dominated by the material production phase.

“These findings supported, with real business cases, the hypothesis that the environmental impacts of passive durable products have great potential for reduction by extending the lifetime of the product through the addition of services because environmental impacts are dominated by the material production phase.”

The impact of return transport and added services was very low.

“The impact of return transport and added services was very low and, accordingly, no trade-offs were identified.”

The reduction in environmental impact was substantial for all cases, excluding the waste inlet, between 45% and 72% in terms of GWP.

“The reduction in environmental impact was substantial for all cases, excluding the waste inlet (between 45% and 72% in terms of GWP).”

The cost to the company responsible for bringing circular offerings to the market was reduced in all cases as calculated with LCC from a manufacturer's perspective.

“The cost to the company responsible for bringing circular offerings to the market was also reduced in all the cases as calculated with LCC from a manufacturer's perspective.”

The main factor affecting improvement potential is the proportion of the impact caused by the production of durable components; the larger the proportion, the greater the benefits from lifetime extension.

“The main factors that affected improvement potential were, first, the proportion of the impact that is caused by the production of durable components (the larger the proportion, the greater the benefits from lifetime extension), and second, the length of the lifetime extension matters, i.e., the number of times a durable component can be reused or the length of time for which its lifetime is ext”

The studied circular offerings all had a smaller environmental impact than their business-as-usual counterparts.

“The studied circular offerings all had a smaller environmental impact than their business-as-usual counterparts.”

Passive durable products hold a larger and more consistent potential for environmental improvement than other products.

“Passive durable products, however, hold a larger and more consistent potential for environmental improvement because their environmental impact is dominated by the production phase, usually the production of materials, while their physical lifetime is not fully exploited [20].”

• cites [20] Cooper, 2017, The environmental impacts of reuse: A review, J. Ind. Ecol. sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

The measure can effectively contribute to a circular economy.

“The decreases in both LCA and LCC results, as well as the willingness of the companies to implement the changes, demonstrate that this measure can be financially attractive for companies to implement and effectively contribute to a circular economy.”

Companies that have passive durable products can opt for strategies and business models that extend product lifetime with high confidence that they will contribute to a more circular economy and resource efficiency per unit of function delivered.

“This is important because it essentially means that companies that have passive durable products can opt for strategies and business models that extend the lifetime of their products with high confidence that they will be contributing to a more circular economy and resource efficiency per unit of function delivered.”

The environmental impact of passive durable products is dominated by the production phase, usually the production of materials.

“Passive durable products, however, hold a larger and more consistent potential for environmental improvement because their environmental impact is dominated by the production phase, usually the production of materials, while their physical lifetime is not fully exploited [20].”

• cites [20] Cooper, 2017, The environmental impacts of reuse: A review, J. Ind. Ecol. sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

The physical lifetime of passive durable products is not fully exploited.

“Passive durable products, however, hold a larger and more consistent potential for environmental improvement because their environmental impact is dominated by the production phase, usually the production of materials, while their physical lifetime is not fully exploited [20].”

• cites [20] Cooper, 2017, The environmental impacts of reuse: A review, J. Ind. Ecol. sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Only one article was found to quantify both the economic and environmental outcomes of prolonging the lifetime of passive products through PSS.

“However, only one article was found to quantify both the economic and environmental outcomes of prolonging the lifetime of passive products through PSS”

• cites [24] Lindahl, 2014, Environmental and economic benefits of Integrated Product Service Offerings quantified with real business cases, J. Clean. Prod. sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Focusing on product- or use-oriented services for the implementation of CE strategies, as less complex than result-oriented services, may lead to a higher adoption rate.

“Therefore, focusing on product-or use-oriented services for the implementation of CE strategies, as less complex than result-oriented services, may lead to a higher adoption rate.”

The measure can be financially attractive for companies to implement.

“The decreases in both LCA and LCC results, as well as the willingness of the companies to implement the changes, demonstrate that this measure can be financially attractive for companies to implement and effectively contribute to a circular economy.”

The main reason costs reduced less than the environmental impact is that some costs have no equivalent in LCA, such as administration and labor costs for services.

“The main reason that costs reduced less than the environmental impact is that some costs have no equivalent in LCA, e.g., administration and labor costs for services.”

Lindahl et al. demonstrated substantial reduction of both LCA and LCC through reuse of the core plugs for paper rolls at paper mills.

“Lindahl et al. [24] demonstrated substantial reduction of both LCA and LCC through reuse of the core plugs for paper rolls at paper mills.”

• cites [24] Lindahl, 2014, Environmental and economic benefits of Integrated Product Service Offerings quantified with real business cases, J. Clean. Prod. sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

The dominance of Production D of durable parts in GWP is the reason why the environmental improvement in the circular offering is greater.

“This is the reason why the environmental improvement in the circular offering is greater.”

• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: The durable components of the beach flag and event tent were reused 9 times during product lifetime.

For both the recycling bin and the locker, if the number of repairs/refurbishments needed during an extended lifetime to maintain quality equal to replacement does not exceed the breakeven amount, then repairing/refurbishing is the better option.

“This means that unless one needs to repair or refurbish more than the breakeven amount during an extended lifetime to keep the quality the same as replacing the product with a new one, then repairing or refurbishing would be the better option.”

Quantitative studies, and especially research that combines the environmental and economic perspectives of extending the lifetime of products, are few in the CE context and in the PSS context.

“Quantitative studies, and especially research that combines the environmental and economic perspectives of extending the lifetime of products, are few in the CE context [19] and in the PSS context [24].”

• cites [19] Iraldo, 2017, Is product durability better for environment and for economic efficiency? A comparative assessment applying LCA and LCC to two energy-intensive products, J. Clean. Prod. sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [24] Lindahl, 2014, Environmental and economic benefits of Integrated Product Service Offerings quantified with real business cases, J. Clean. Prod. sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Although there are numerous assessment studies that combine LCA and LCC, the majority of those studies are from the building, energy, and waste and water sectors.

“Although there are numerous assessment studies that combine LCA and LCC, as reviewed by Miah et al. [42], the majority of those studies are from the building, energy, and waste and water sectors.”

• cites Miah et al. [42] Miah, 2017, A hybridised framework combining integrated methods for environmental Life Cycle Assessment and Life Cycle Costing, J. Clean. Prod. sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

The independence of some costs from the production process limits the cost-saving potential when implementing a circular offering.

“This limits the cost-saving potential when implementing a circular offering.”

• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: The durable components of the beach flag and event tent were reused 9 times during product lifetime.

The flat distribution cost is one reason that there was a difference in the reductions in costs compared to environmental impacts.

“This is one reason that there was a difference in the reductions in costs compared to environmental impacts.”

• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: The metal parts would be sent to recycling, and the wood parts would be sent to incineration at the EOL of the product.

The difference in reduction between LCC man and LCA is mainly due to costs not related to production and costs and environmental impacts of the dominant phase.

“The main reasons for the difference in reduction between LCC man and LCA are due to: (i) costs not related to production, and (ii) costs and environmental impacts of the dominant phase.”

• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: The number of re-uses of the products estimated by suppliers is an accurate representation of what could be, or already is, implemented.
• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: Each pole is expected to maintain a good condition for 10 events.
• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: The tent frame and weights are estimated to be used 10 times before EOL.
• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: At EOL, metal parts are sent to recycling, while textile and fiberglass parts are sent to incineration with energy recovery.

The LCC man decreased more when applying the circular offering to the locker than when applying it to the bin.

“Thus, the LCC man decreased more when applying the circular offering to the locker than when applying it to the bin.”

The costs that were the same for the BAU and circular offerings were independent of the production process and its raw materials.

“The reason is that the former were independent of the production process and its raw materials.”

• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: The durable components of the beach flag and event tent were reused 9 times during product lifetime.

Indicators for resource use in LCA are unstable.

“No impact assessment method was used to aggregate the use of different resources due to the instability of indicators for resource use in LCA [55].”

• cites [55] Grunditz, 2019, Life cycle assessment of permanent magnet electric traction motors, Transport. Res. D Transport. Environ. sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

The GWP of painting the doors limited the improvement potential of the circular offering, which included repainting the doors.

“This limited the improvement potential of the circular offering, which included repainting the doors.”

• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: The metal parts would be sent to recycling, and the wood parts would be sent to incineration at the EOL of the product.

The BAU offering's production-related costs being only 44% for the bin limited the potential for cost reductions for the bin.

“This limited the potential for cost reductions for the bin and again demonstrates that the higher the share of production-related costs of the component whose lifetime is prolonged (and, correspondingly, the lower the costs not related to production), the higher the potential for savings, thus making the circular option economically viable.”

The major contribution of Production D to GWP explains the large reduction in GWP when the body of the recycling bin, which is made of steel, was reused, despite the production of two extra lids.

“This explains the large reduction in GWP when the body of the recycling bin, which is made of steel, was reused, despite the production of two extra lids.”

• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: The metal parts would be sent to recycling, and the wood parts would be sent to incineration at the EOL of the product.

The addition of services in order to prolong the lifetime of products is expected to incur higher labor costs.

“The addition of services in order to prolong the lifetime of products is expected to incur higher labor costs, e.g., the treatment of the returned product and administration costs.”

The improvement potential of the circular alternative may be overestimated.

“and hence, the improvement potential of the circular alternative may be overestimated.”

Prolonging the lifetime of passive durable products has a high potential for substituting intensive primary production with lower-impact repair/refurbishment processes, thereby lowering the environmental impacts per unit of function delivered.

“The implications for companies are that prolonging the lifetime of passive durable products has a high potential for substituting intensive primary production with lower-impact repair/refurbishment processes, thereby lowering the environmental impacts per unit of function delivered.”

The two contributing factors for the waste inlet are similar to other cases: costs not related to production and costs and environmental impacts of the dominant phase.

“The two contributing factors, however, are similar, namely, (i) costs not related to production and (ii) costs and environmental impacts of the dominant phase.”

The overall finding that extending the lifetime of passive durable products leads to less environmental impact is robust.

“the overall finding that extending the lifetime of passive durable products leads to less environmental impact is robust (even if exact numerical results are subject to uncertainty).”

For Company C, the results confirm that the higher the share of production-related costs of the component being prolonged in LCCman, the higher the potential for savings and making the circular option economically viable.

“Finally, similar to Companies A and B, the results of Company C confirm that the higher the share of production-related costs of the component being prolonged in the LCC man , the higher the potential for savings and making the circular option economically viable.”

• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: Similar supply chains were assumed for the other components of the waste inlet.
• AssumptionRests on an assumption: At the end of life of the waste inlet, the metal parts are sent to recycling.
• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The steel for the inlet's body is produced in Sweden.

Environmental improvements from changing the door's design for the waste inlet were limited and barely seen.

“Hence, environmental improvements from changing the door's design (Production R and Production S) were limited and barely seen.”

• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: Similar supply chains were assumed for the other components of the waste inlet.
• AssumptionRests on an assumption: At the end of life of the waste inlet, the metal parts are sent to recycling.
• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The steel for the inlet's body is produced in Sweden.

No impact assessment related to toxicity was done due to a lack of high-quality data on the impact assessment of textile chemicals.

“Due to a lack of high-quality data on the impact assessment of textile chemicals, no impact assessment related to toxicity was done”

There are data gaps in this study for products that contain textile components (the tent and the beach flag).

“Nevertheless, there are data gaps in this study for products that contain textile components (the tent and the beach flag).”

The inlet case exemplified and documented the importance of careful planning and designing the offering in order to repeat the full benefits of the PSS.

“exemplified and documented the importance of careful planning and designing the offering in order to repeat the full benefits of the PSS [35].”

• cites [35] Sakao, 2007, Service Engineering: A novel engineering discipline for producers to increase value combining service and product, J. Clean. Prod. sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

The waste inlet result is the opposite of the other cases where the LCA reductions were more dominant.

“This is the opposite of the other cases where the LCA reductions were more dominant.”

The results of the LCC are subject to uncertainties due to insufficient data.

“Similar to the LCA, the results of the LCC are also subject to uncertainties due to insufficient data, e.g., data on estimations of lifetime and cost.”

Cost alone does not fully portray financial or business implications.

“Although this research found that the manufacturer's cost can be reduced by extending the use of passive durable products, it is important to note that cost alone does not fully portray financial or business implications [61].”

• cites [61] Hunkeler, D., Lichtenvort, K., and Rebitzer, G. (2008). Environmental Life Cycle Costing, CRC Press. sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Revenues depend on how circular offerings are priced and what customers are willing to pay for them.

Redesigning the door handle prolongs the lifetime for some of the door's components.

“In this way, the lifetime for some of the door's components could be prolonged.”

The environmental impact of the textile components is probably underestimated.

“Consequently, the environmental impact of the textile components is probably underestimated”

The LCA results provided quantified cases that support the theoretical motivation that prolonging the lifetime of passive durable products has a high potential for environmental benefits.

“and therefore provided quantified cases that support the theoretical motivation of this paper, discussed in Section 2, that prolonging the lifetime of passive durable products has a high potential for environmental benefits.”

The recycling bin and lockers delivered only twice as much function in the circular offering.

“This means that they delivered only twice as much function in the circular offering.”

The difference between GWP and LCCman for the recycling bin is due to the environmental impact from the MDF lid being negligible compared to that of the steel body.

“This is due to the fact that the environmental impact from the MDF lid is negligible compared to that of the steel body.”

In the circular offering for the waste inlet, the door handle was redesigned for ease-of-repair, allowing for replacing the handle alone as opposed to the BAU scenario where the whole door is replaced.

“In the circular offering, the door handle was redesigned for ease-of-repair, allowing for replacing the handle alone as opposed to the BAU scenario where the whole door is replaced.”

Labor costs accounted for in LCC_man have no equivalent in LCA.

“Labor costs accounted for in LCC man have no equivalent in LCA.”

The cases demonstrate that one way to overcome barriers and, consequently, prolong the lifetime of passive durable products is through the addition of services.

“Since the cases examined in the present study, with the exception of the recycling bin, have either been implemented already or are going to be implemented, they demonstrate that one way to overcome barriers and, consequently, prolong the lifetime of passive durable products is through the addition of services.”

Many CE measures need to be implemented as part of innovation ecosystems or coordinated action of global supply chains in order to be economically viable.

“The cases in this research are simple and do not require extensive changes to the companies' supply chains, but many CE measures need to be implemented as part of innovation ecosystems or coordinated action of global supply chains in order to be economically viable.”

No trade-offs were identified.

“The impact of return transport and added services was very low and, accordingly, no trade-offs were identified.”

The environmental impacts of passive durable products have great potential for reduction by extending the lifetime of the product through the addition of services.

“These findings supported, with real business cases, the hypothesis that the environmental impacts of passive durable products have great potential for reduction by extending the lifetime of the product through the addition of services because environmental impacts are dominated by the material production phase.”

The targeted design of a service and an integrated PSS can significantly reduce labor costs, as demonstrated in the waste inlet case.

“The targeted design of a service and an integrated PSS, however, can significantly reduce labor costs, as demonstrated in the waste inlet case.”

The difference between cost reductions and environmental improvements is because production does not dominate costs to the same extent it dominates environmental impact.

“This difference is because production does not dominate costs to the same extent it dominates environmental impact.”