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Cited by 1,229Intelligent Tutoring Systems and Adaptive LearningArtificial Intelligence in EducationOnline Learning and Analytics

Evolution and Revolution in Artificial Intelligence in Education

Open access
Roll, Ido, Wylie, Ruth·2016·International Journal of Artificial Intelligence in Education
DOI 10.1007/s40593-016-0110-3
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Abstract

The field of Artificial Intelligence in Education (AIED) has undergone significant developments over the last twenty-five years. As we reflect on our past and shape our future, we ask two main questions: What are our major strengths? And, what new opportunities lay on the horizon? We analyse 47 papers from three years in the history of the Journal of AIED (1994, 2004, and 2014) to identify the foci and typical scenarios that occupy the field of AIED. We use those results to suggest two parallel strands of research that need to take place in order to impact education in the next 25 years: One is an evolutionary process, focusing on current classroom practices, collaborating with teachers, and diversifying technologies and domains. The other is a revolutionary process where we argue for embedding our technologies within students’ everyday lives, supporting their cultures, practices, goals, and communities.

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

The paper reviews 47 IJAIED papers from 1994, 2004, and 2014 to map AIED’s evolution, finding increased empirical rigor, a STEM/step-based focus, and limited technology/setting diversity. It argues for both evolutionary work within current classrooms and revolutionary work embedding AIED in learners’ everyday lives, cultures, and communities.

Key findings

  • Empirical papers rose from 1/20 (5%) in 1994 to 8/13 (62%) in 2004 and 10/14 (71%) in 2014; focus shifted toward system description and evaluation.
  • STEM focus increased: among empirical papers, 2014 had n = 8 (80%) STEM; breadth also increased, with 2014 empirical papers at n = 5 (50%) many topics >1 month, n = 3 (30%) few topics <5 h, and n = 2 (20%) 1 topic <1 h.
  • Interaction moved toward step-based: 2014 empirical step-based n = 6 (60%), complex problems n = 5 (50%), exploratory/games n = 1 (10%); 2014 included many collaboration examples, whereas 1994 and 2004 had few.
  • Technology/setting remained narrow: all but one 1994 paper used desktop/laptop and all but one 1994 aimed at formal school; most learning goals were domain-level, with 2014 motivation measured by surveys in n = 3 and only one paper surveying other motivation aspects. Geographic skew: 43/47 papers from North America, Europe, and Oceania; 3 from East Asia, 1 from South America, none from Africa or South East Asia.

Methods

  • Content analysis of 47 papers from IJAIED 1994 (20), 2004 (13), and 2014 (14), including regular and special issue papers.
  • Coded each paper on type/focus, domain/breadth, interaction style/collaborative structure, technology/setting, and learning goals; multiple codes were allowed, and N/A was used when a dimension was irrelevant or information was missing.
  • Linguistic analysis of abstracts: removed function words, converted content words to root form, and used textalyser.net to identify the ten most common words by year.

Limitations

  • The authors state most papers did not report teacher involvement or complementary classroom practices, so classroom context could not be analyzed; some dimensions were N/A due missing or irrelevant information.
  • The authors note special issues contributed to 2014 trends, and the review covers only IJAIED papers from three years rather than the whole field (stated/evident).
  • Evident: the linguistic analysis is simple and abstract-only, and coding relies on available paper text, so dimensions may be undercounted when information is missing.

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1007/s40593-016-0110-3

Cites

86 of 86 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Nothing to recompute.

Claims the paper makes

0 of 26 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged

  • Findingcitation

    The field has been moving towards increasing the focus on step-based systems.

    “As can be seen, we have been moving towards increasing the focus on step-based systems.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Findingown data

    With the exception of a single paper from 1994, all reviewed systems were designed to be used in formal school environments (classroom or homework).

    “Similarly, with the exception of a single paper from 1994, all systems were designed to be used in formal school environments (be it in the classroom or for homework).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data

    There is a lack of focus on novel research methods in the reviewed papers.

    “At the same time, the lack of focus on novel research methods is somewhat unexpected.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data

    There is an increase in the rate of papers that discuss the theoretical implications and contributions of their work.

    “We were glad to see an increase in the rate of papers that discuss the theoretical implications and contributions of their work.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data

    With the exception of a single paper from 1994, all reviewed papers described users working with a desktop or laptop computer.

    “With the exception of a single paper from 1994, all papers described users working with a desktop or laptop computer.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • The quote only partly states this claim. 3
  • May combine two claims. 21
  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 24

  • The quote only partly states this claim.

    Findingown data

    The analysis of 47 papers from 1994, 2004, and 2014 reveals a clear increase in the level of evaluative rigor of papers.

    “Our analysis reveals a clear increase in the level of evaluative rigor of papers.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Empirical papers demonstrate a higher level of rigor than non-empirical papers.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    There is a very strong increase in the breadth of content covered and in the time spent using the environments in empirical papers.

    “As shown in Table 4, there is a very strong increase in the breadth of content that is covered and in the time spent using the environments.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingown data

    Many results of the linguistic analysis of abstracts echo the trends reported above.

    “As shown in Table 8, many of these results echo the trends reported above.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Findingnone given

    The reviewed papers show more empirical work, increased rigor, and increased support for collaboration.

    “We see more empirical work, increased rigor, and increased support for collaboration.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Empirical papers demonstrate a higher level of rigor than non-empirical papers.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The field shifted to include more stakeholders: teacher appears in the 2004 and 2014 lists but not in 1994, and is more frequent in 2014 than in 2004.

    “Similarly, we see the field shifting to include more stakeholders: teacher appears both in the 2004 and 2014 lists but not in 1994, and is more frequent in 2014 than in 2004.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Findingnone given

    With existing systems, teachers were often viewed as on-site technical support and guardians of their students, facilitating interaction but not much more.

    “With existing systems, teachers were often viewed as on-site technical support and guardians of their students, in the sense that teachers facilitate the interaction, but not much more than that.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The linguistic analysis supports the observation of moving from knowledge as a product to learning as a process; knowledge was the third most frequently used word in 1994 and was replaced.

    “The analysis also supports the observation of moving from knowledge as a product to learning as a process; knowledge was the third most frequently used word in 1994, and was replaced”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • The quote only partly states this claim.

    Findingown data

    Overall, the data suggests that AIED has been focusing on a very specific scenario: the use of computers in the classroom to teach domain knowledge in STEM topics using step-based problems.

    “Overall, our data suggests that AIED has been focusing on a very specific scenario, and has been doing it well: the use of computers in the classroom to teach domain”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The authors found no examples of K-12 schools being listed as affiliations on the reviewed papers themselves; participating teachers were also affiliated with the university, and teachers who are not academics were not listed on any publication.

    “we found no examples of K-12 schools being listed as affiliations on the papers themselves.That is, participating teachers were also affiliated with the university.Teachers who are not academics were not listed on any publication.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Student is the most frequent word in abstracts each year and system is in the top three across years.

    “Student is the most frequent word each year and system is in the top three across years.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Of the 47 reviewed papers, 43 come from North America, Europe, and Oceania; four have authors from other regions (three from East Asia and one from South America); none are authored by researchers from Africa or South East Asia.

    “Currently, of the 47 papers that we have reviewed, 43 come from North America, Europe, and Oceania.Only four papers have authors from other regions: three from East Asia and one from South America.There are no papers authored by researchers from Africa or South East Asia.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    In 2004 non-empirical papers, 2 (40%) used step-based problem solving and 1 (20%) complex problems.

    “| | 2004 | n = 2 (40 %) | n = 1 (20 %) | |”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The word web appears in the 2004 list and disappears from the 2014 list.

    “Interestingly, web appears in 2004 and disappears again from the 2014 list.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    In 2004 empirical papers, 2 (25%) used step-based problem solving, 3 (38%) complex problems, and 3 (38%) exploratory environments and games.

    “| | 2004 | n = 2 (25 %) | n = 3 (38 %) | n = 3 (38 %) |”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    In 1994 non-empirical papers, 8 (42%) used step-based problem solving, 7 (37%) complex problems, and 1 (05%) exploratory environments and games.

    “| Non-empirical | 1994 | n = 8 (42 %) | n = 7 (37 %) | n = 1 (05 %) |”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    In 2014 empirical papers, 6 (60%) used step-based problem solving, 5 (50%) complex problems, and 1 (10%) exploratory environments and games.

    “| | 2014 | n = 6 (60 %) | n = 5 (50 %) | n = 1 (10 %) |”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims. The quote only partly states this claim.

    Findingown data

    The analysis included 20 papers from 1994, 13 from 2004, and 14 from 2014.

    “| 1994 | 15 | 5 | Language learning (n = 5) | 20 |”
    • Also stated in: § Concluding Remarks · plain
      “| 2004 | 13 | 0 | n/a | 13 |”
    • Also stated in: § Concluding Remarks · plain
      “| 2014 | 3 | 11 | Learning in groups (n = 4); Emerging | 14 |”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    There is evidence of a shift from theory to empirical analysis, with a gradual decline in the use of the word model from 1994 to 2004, until it no longer appears as a common word in 2014.

    “We also see evidence of the shift from theory to empirical analysis with a gradual decline in the use of the word model from 1994 to 2004, until it no longer appears as a common word in 2014.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Environments that incorporate collaboration can trace, model, and support collaborative processes, thus potentially improving a significant component of today's schooling experience.

    “Environments that incorporate collaboration can trace, model, and support these processes, thus potentially improving a significant component of today's schooling experience.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Students are becoming more adept at communicating using technology.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    By building and contributing to theories of learning, the field of AIED adopts higher standards and a more holistic approach to the study of education.

    “By building and contributing to theories of learning, the field of AIED adopts higher standards and a more holistic approach to the study of education.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Empirical papers demonstrate a higher level of rigor than non-empirical papers.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationcitation

    The increasing focus on step-based systems is natural given the success in this type of work.

    “This is natural, given the success in this type of work (VanLehn, 2011).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites VanLehn, 2011 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationnone given

    The presence of two special issues on STEM in 2014 and a special issue on Language Learning in 1994 reflects the interest of the AIED community.

    “the fact that there were two special issues on STEM (and a special issue on Language Learning in 1994) reflects the interest of our community.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Special issues reflect current values and areas of interest for the community.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    A major challenge for current schooling practices is personalization, because learners bring different experiences, goals, and backgrounds while the current schooling system struggles to offer individualized learning paths.

    “Another major challenge for current schooling practices is that of personalization (Collins & Halverson, 2010).While learners bring different experiences, goals, and backgrounds, the current schooling system struggles to offer individualized learning paths.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Collins & Halverson, 2010

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    Theory suggests that constructivist activities are beneficial.

    “While theory suggests that constructivist activities are beneficial, data suggests that students are in need of greater support (Tobias & Duffy, 2009).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Tobias & Duffy, 2009

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given

    Continuing the trajectories identified above will support the growth of the field, but these changes alone will not actualize the full potential of AIED.

    “While continuing the trajectories that were identified above will support the growth of our field, we argue that these changes alone will not actualize the full potential of AIED.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisenone given

    Leading MOOC vendors have begun to offer their own credentials, creating a new type of certification.

    “In fact, leading MOOC vendors have begun to offer their own credentials (Coursera, edX), creating a new type of certification.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Interpretationreasoning

    By definition, informal learning opportunities lack the support structures that are available in more established settings.

    “By the very definition of being informal, these opportunities lack the support structures that are available in more established settings.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    The researchers in Martin et al. (2013) track how information is shared between devices to support social learning.

    “The researchers then track how information is being shared between devices, in order to support social learning.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Martin et al. (2013)

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

    Interpretationreasoning

    These changes in the landscape of education offer significant challenges to the present focus of AIED.

    “These changes in the landscape of education offer significant challenges to the present focus of AIED.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Many MOOC learners come from the developing world, and in general, MOOC students are post-graduate learners.

    “Many MOOC learners come from the developing world (Christensen et al., 2013), and in general, MOOC students are post-graduate learners.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Christensen et al., 2013

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationreasoning

    Broadening focus in terms of technologies will allow for new kinds of interactions among learners and with their environment.

    “Thus, broadening our focus in terms of technologies will also allow for new kinds of interactions among learners and with their environment.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: New types of sensors on mobile devices allow context-awareness (e.g., accelerometers, GPS).
    • Rests on an assumption: New kinds of input devices allow novel modes of interaction (e.g., multi-touch, cameras).

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Martin et al. (2013) offer a programming environment on a handheld.

    “For example, Martin et al. (2013) offer a programming environment on a handheld.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Martin et al. (2013)

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Interpretationreasoning

    The lack of data about teacher involvement and complementary classroom practices may reflect a perceived lack of value of this information.

    “The lack of data about these may reflect a perceived lack of value of this information.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

    Premisecitation

    Education is a socio-cultural phenomenon.

    “Education is a socio-cultural phenomena (Vygotsky, 2012).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Vygotsky, 2012

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Teachers are no longer expected to possess all relevant knowledge and transmit it to learners; instead, they are tasked with supporting learners in seeking, finding, and integrating information and becoming independent collaborative thinkers.

    “Teachers are no longer expected to possess all relevant knowledge and to transmit it to learners.Instead, they are tasked with supporting their learners in seeking, finding, and integrating information, and becoming independent collaborative thinkers.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    The authors' work on PhET-based assessments is an example of an existing resource.

    “Some examples already exist out there, such as the gStudy browser add-on (Winne & Hadwin, 2013) or our own work on PhET-based assessments (Kardan et al., 2014).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Kardan et al., 2014

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    One outcome of these changes is increased complexity in assignments, learning goals, required literacies, and classroom interactions and orchestration.

    “One outcome of these changes is increased complexity complexity in the assignments (e.g., from calculation to Problem-Based Learning), complexity in learning goals (e.g., from recall to information seeking and synthesis), complexity in required literacies (e.g., from verbal literacy to technology and information literacies; Katz 2013), and complexity of classroom interactions and orchestration (e.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Katz 2013

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Dillenbourg, 2013

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    The Martin et al. (2013) programming environment allows learners to interact directly with each other as they move in space.

    “This allows learners to interact directly with each other, as they move in space.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Martin et al. (2013)

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Knowledge is becoming a verb (something we do) rather than a noun (something we possess).

    “Knowledge is becoming a verb (something we do) rather than a noun (something we possess; Gilbert, 2013).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Gilbert, 2013

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given

    These trends are often at conflict with one another; for example, MOOCs typically include nothing but a talking head and low-level multiple-choice items, in contrast to the 'guide on the side' classroom trend.

    “Interestingly, these trends are often at conflict with one another: for example, MOOCs typically include nothing but a talking head and low-level multiple-choice items, which is in stark contrast to the Bguide on the side^classroom trend.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Millions of learners every year enroll in MOOCs.

    “Currently, millions of learners every year enroll in MOOCs (Pappano, 2012).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Pappano, 2012

      Not checked in the free run.

41 of 41

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Empirical papers demonstrate a higher level of rigor than non-empirical papers.

    “Throughout our analysis we distinguish between non-empirical and empirical papers, as empirical papers demonstrate a higher level of rigor.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Special issues reflect current values and areas of interest for the community.

    “we believe that special issues reflect current values and areas of interest for the community.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Students are becoming more adept at communicating using technology.

    “as students are becoming more adept at communicating using technology.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    New technologies (handhelds, wearables, robotics) are becoming cheaper and more ubiquitous.

    “These technologies are becoming cheaper and more ubiquitous.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Testing technologies and theories over time and across topics increases the rigor of research.

    “This also increases the rigor of our work, by testing technologies and theories over time and across topics.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Current views on teaching and learning expand and extend beyond the classroom to informal and workplace learning.

    “current views on teaching and learning expand and extend beyond the classroom to informal and workplace learning.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    New types of sensors on mobile devices allow context-awareness (e.g., accelerometers, GPS).

    “New types of sensors on mobile devices allow us to be context-aware (e.g., accelerometers, GPS).”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    New kinds of input devices allow novel modes of interaction (e.g., multi-touch, cameras).

    “New kind of input devices allow for novel modes of interaction (e.g.multi-touch, cameras).”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Presently, ILE developers develop their own content.

    “Presently, ILE developers develop their own content.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Using existing textbooks in ASSISTments is very labour intensive.

    “However, this is very labour intensive.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Many systems already have a wide user base.

    “In addition to increasing flexibility and reducing labour, many systems already have a wide user base.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The Learning Sciences community has been pushing for increased authenticity and work in context.

    “For example, the Learning Sciences community has been pushing for increased authenticity and work in context.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    ILE have unique affordances that human tutors do not.

    “Simply speaking, ILE have unique affordances that human tutors do not, and the next generation of systems should leverage those affordances to support learning anytime, anywhere, by anyone.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Modelling work has continued to take centre stage in other venues, such as the Journal of User Modeling and User-Adapted Interaction, the Journal of Educational Data Mining, and The Journal of Learning Analytics.

    “Notably, modelling work has continued to take centre stage in other venues, such as the Journal of User Modeling and User-Adapted Interaction (est.1991), the Journal of Educational Data Mining (est.2008), and The Journal of Learning Analytics (est.2014).”
14 of 14

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

  • AI-powered discussion platforms, such as Packback, can simulate peer interactions for remote learners, promoting engagement and deeper understanding of course material.

    “For instance, AI-powered discussion platforms, first used during the COVID-19 pandemic (e.g., Packback), can simulate peer interactions for remote learners, promoting engagement and a deeper understanding of course material [27, 28].”

    From Generative AI in Higher Education: Balancing Innovation and Integrity (2025) · cites this paper as [27]

    The paper’s “Interaction Style and Collaborative Structure” section (page unavailable) identifies discussion forums as a way learners interact asynchronously and says collaborative learning environments can potentially improve schooling. It does not discuss Packback, COVID-19, simulated peer interactions, or demonstrate greater engagement and deeper understanding for remote learners. (LLM, conf=0.85)

    Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • Educators often report difficulty distinguishing AI from other digital technologies, complicating how they interpret its role in pedagogy.

    “Demonstrating conceptual uncertainty, educators often report difficulty distinguishing AI from other digital technologies, complicating how they interpret its role in pedagogy (Roll & Wylie, 2016).”

    From Teachers' Experiences with AI in K–12 Education: Opportunities and Challenges (2026) · cites this paper as Roll & Wylie, 2016

    The Embedded in Context section calls for teachers to collaborate in AIED research and for study of how technology changes pedagogy. The Technology and Setting section distinguishes types of technology used in AIED research, but neither section reports that educators have difficulty distinguishing AI from other digital technologies or interpreting its pedagogical role. Searches for those perceptions found no supporting passage in our copy; page numbers were unavailable. (LLM, conf=0.76)

    Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • Empirical studies focusing on K-12 contexts remain limited.

    “empirical studies focusing on K-12 contexts remain limited (Chiu et al., 2023;Nigam et al., 2021;Roll & Wylie, 2016).”

    From Teachers' Experiences with AI in K–12 Education: Opportunities and Challenges (2026) · cites this paper as Roll & Wylie, 2016

    The Type and Focus of Paper section reports that empirical papers increased in the journal sample, but does not break them down by K–12 context. Embedded in Context says no K–12 schools were listed as author affiliations; that does not establish that empirical studies in K–12 settings were limited. Searches for K–12 empirical studies and primary or secondary school research found no passage making the claimed comparison. (LLM, conf=0.74)

    Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

Research works printed but not linked: 2

  1. Pappano, 2012, The year of the MOOC, The New York Times, 2, 2012
  2. Van Joolingen, 1995, QMaPS: qualitative reasoning for simulation learning environments, Journal of Artificial Intelligence in Education

Cited by

Sorted by citations

Related

Authors
Roll, I., & Wylie, R.
Affiliations
  • University of British Columbia (CA)
  • Arizona State University (US)
Corresponding author
Roll, Ido
ORCID
Venue
International Journal of Artificial Intelligence in Education
Publisher
Elsevier BV
Published
2016-06
Volume
26
Issue
2
Pages
582-599
ISSN
1560-4292 (ISSN-L)
DOI
10.1007/s40593-016-0110-3
OpenAlex
W2337155942
Semantic Scholar
f90511eb2c969052e44ff0bc675c150e55e0c147
Cited by
1,229
References
86
Citations by year
2026: 288 · 2025: 321 · 2024: 234 · 2023: 120 · 2022: 96 · 2021: 89 · 2020: 47 · 2019: 19 · 2018: 7 · 2017: 6 · 2016: 2
FWCI
9.33
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
Locations
International Journal of Artificial Intelligence in Education (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
Topics
  • Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Artificial Intelligence › Intelligent Tutoring Systems and Adaptive Learning
  • Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Information Systems › Artificial Intelligence in Education
  • Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Computer Science Applications › Online Learning and Analytics
Keywords
artificial intelligence in education, research foci, teaching practice, teacher collaboration, everyday learning, student-centered learning

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