Entering adolescence: resistance to peer influence, risky behavior, and neural changes in emotion reactivity
Open accessAbstract
Adolescence is often described as a period of heightened reactivity to emotions paired with reduced regulatory capacities, a combination suggested to contribute to risk-taking and susceptibility to peer influence during puberty. However, no longitudinal research has definitively linked these behavioral changes to underlying neural development. Here, 38 neurotypical participants underwent two fMRI sessions across the transition from late childhood (10 years) to early adolescence (13 years). Responses to affective facial displays exhibited a combination of general and emotion-specific changes in ventral striatum (VS), ventromedial PFC, amygdala, and temporal pole. Furthermore, VS activity increases correlated with decreases in susceptibility to peer influence and risky behavior. VS and amygdala responses were also significantly more negatively coupled in early adolescence than in late childhood while processing sad and happy versus neutral faces. Together, these results suggest that VS responses to viewing emotions may play a regulatory role that is critical to adolescent interpersonal functioning.
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The ATC was the only area to show a longitudinal change in preference for emotional facial displays.
“The ATC was the only area to show a longitudinal change in preference for emotional facial displays.”
From Is Adolescence a Sensitive Period for Sociocultural Processing? (2014) · cites this paper as Pfeifer et al. 2011
The Results section (page unavailable) says that stronger longitudinal increases for emotional versus neutral faces were observed only in the left temporal pole. It does not call that region the ATC, and the same section reports greater increases for particular emotional expressions versus neutral faces in the ventral striatum and right amygdala. Thus, 'only area' is supported for the paper’s aggregate emotional-versus-neutral comparison, not without that qualification. (LLM, conf=0.84)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe transition to adolescence is associated with greater subcortical reactivity to affective facial displays, which may be associated with successful regulation of emotional responses to one's environment and may contribute to adaptive adolescent interpersonal functioning.
“On a physiological level, the transition to adolescence is associated with greater subcortical reactivity to affective facial displays, which may be associated with successful regulation of emotional responses to one's environment and may contribute to adaptive adolescent interpersonal functioning (Pfeifer et al., 2011).”
From Physiological feelings (2019) · cites this paper as Pfeifer et al., 2011
As participants transitioned from late childhood to adolescence, they showed greater neural activity in the ventral striatum and ventromedial PFC while looking at facial displays.
“As participants transitioned from late childhood (∼10 years) to adolescence (∼13 years), they showed greater neural activity in the ventral striatum and ventromedial PFC while looking at facial displays (Pfeifer et al. 2011).”
From Is Adolescence a Sensitive Period for Sociocultural Processing? (2014) · cites this paper as Pfeifer et al. 2011
Longitudinal changes in ventral striatal activity correlated with decreasing susceptibility to peer influence.
“This study correlated longitudinal changes in ventral striatal activity with decreasing susceptibility (i.e., increasing resistance) to peer influence”
From Is Adolescence a Sensitive Period for Sociocultural Processing? (2014) · cites this paper as Pfeifer et al. 2011
Heightened subcortical reactivity in socioemotional situations might indicate better emotion-regulation capacities.
“demonstrating that heightened subcortical reactivity in socioemotional situations might indicate better emotion-regulation capacities (Pfeifer et al. 2011).”
From Is Adolescence a Sensitive Period for Sociocultural Processing? (2014) · cites this paper as Pfeifer et al. 2011
A longitudinal study found that rising VS reactivity to emotional faces tracked with greater resistance to peer influence and less risky behavior.
“a recent longitudinal study of the transition from childhood to adolescence found increases in VS response to emotional facial expressions were associated with increases in resistance to peer influence and decreases in risky behavior [31].”
From Arrested development? Reconsidering dual-systems models of brain function in adolescence and disorders (2012) · cites this paper as [31]
Developmental fMRI work on emotion does not consistently show greater amygdala reactivity in teenagers.
“recent developmental fMRI studies of emotion reactivity and regulation have not consistently found heightened responses in amygdala during adolescence [31,32,44,45].”
From Arrested development? Reconsidering dual-systems models of brain function in adolescence and disorders (2012) · cites this paper as [31]
The VS does not always bias adolescents toward maladaptive behavior.
“nor always biases adolescents towards maladaptive behavior.”
From Arrested development? Reconsidering dual-systems models of brain function in adolescence and disorders (2012) · cites this paper as [31]
Comparable motion artifacts might affect studies reporting age-related rises in task-dependent prefrontal-subcortical connectivity.
“Similar effects could be at work in the empirical studies that show developmental increases in task-dependent functional connectivity between prefrontal and subcortical regions [2,31].”
From Arrested development? Reconsidering dual-systems models of brain function in adolescence and disorders (2012) · cites this paper as [31]
Truly longitudinal studies following brain and behavior or clinical symptoms within the same adolescents over time are especially scarce.
“a particular paucity of truly longitudinal studies that have tracked changes in brain and behavior or clinical symptomatology over time within individuals across adolescence (with notable recent exceptions) [31,59,60,83-85].”
From Arrested development? Reconsidering dual-systems models of brain function in adolescence and disorders (2012) · cites this paper as [31]
A longitudinal study found an increase in VS and VMPFC activity between age 10 and age 13 when participants passively viewed both happy and sad faces.
“Similarly, a longitudinal study that assessed participants at age 10 and age 13 found that there was an increase in VS and VMPFC activity between the two time points when participants passively viewed both happy and sad faces [29].”
From Is there heightened sensitivity to social reward in adolescence? (2016) · cites this paper as [29]
Heightened ventral striatum responses are associated with adaptive functioning such as decreases in risky behaviour, increased resistance to peer influence and reductions in negative affect following social exclusion.
“Moreover studies have shown that heightened VS responses are associated with adaptive functioning such as decreases in risky behaviour, increased resistance to peer influence and reductions in negative affect following social exclusion (Pfeifer et al., 2011, Masten et al., 2009).”
From Neurocognitive bases of emotion regulation development in adolescence (2015) · cites this paper as Pfeifer et al., 2011
Several studies have not consistently found heightened amygdala responses to emotional stimuli during adolescence.
“Contrary to these models, several studies have not consistently found heightened amygdala responses to emotional stimuli during adolescence (McRae et al., 2012, Pfeifer et al., 2011, Vasa et al., 2011).”
From Neurocognitive bases of emotion regulation development in adolescence (2015) · cites this paper as Pfeifer et al., 2011
Development of limbic structures such as the ventral and dorsal striatum in early adolescence can also be used for emotion regulation.
“However, recent research notes that development of limbic structures such as the ventral and dorsal striatum in early adolescence can also be used for emotion regulation (Pfeifer et al., 2011; Masten et al., 2009) and activity in these regions is associated with reduced risk-taking under some circumstances (Pfeifer et al., 2011).”
From Buffering social influence: neural correlates of response inhibition predict driving safety in the presence of a peer (2015) · cites this paper as Pfeifer et al., 2011
Both dorsal and ventral striatum have been implicated in emotion regulation in teens.
“Importantly, prior research provides evidence for at least partially overlapping resources underpinning different forms of cognitive control and emotion regulation (Berkman, Burklund, & Lieberman, 2009), and both dorsal and ventral striatum have been implicated in emotion regulation in teens (Pfeifer et al., 2011).”
From Buffering social influence: neural correlates of response inhibition predict driving safety in the presence of a peer (2015) · cites this paper as Pfeifer et al., 2011
Individual differences in development within the striatum in adolescence have also been associated with increased emotion regulation and increased resistance to risky peer influence.
“However, individual differences in development within the striatum in adolescence have also been associated with increased emotion regulation and increased resistance to risky peer influence (Pfeifer et al., 2011).”
From Buffering social influence: neural correlates of response inhibition predict driving safety in the presence of a peer (2015) · cites this paper as Pfeifer et al., 2011
Activity in these regions is associated with reduced risk-taking under some circumstances.
“However, recent research notes that development of limbic structures such as the ventral and dorsal striatum in early adolescence can also be used for emotion regulation (Pfeifer et al., 2011; Masten et al., 2009) and activity in these regions is associated with reduced risk-taking under some circumstances (Pfeifer et al., 2011).”
From Buffering social influence: neural correlates of response inhibition predict driving safety in the presence of a peer (2015) · cites this paper as Pfeifer et al., 2011
Striatal activity may be especially important to understanding peer influence during adolescence.
“In addition, consistent with recent findings (Chein et al., 2011; Pfeifer et al., 2011), these results emphasize the possibility that striatal activity may be especially important to understanding peer influence during this developmental time period.”
From Buffering social influence: neural correlates of response inhibition predict driving safety in the presence of a peer (2015) · cites this paper as Pfeifer et al., 2011
Heightened reactivity to emotions paired with an immature emotional regulatory capacity and susceptibility to peer influence have been cited as causing adolescent behavior problems.
“Heightened reactivity to emotions paired with an immature emotional regulatory capacity and susceptibility to peer influence have all been cited as causing adolescent behavior problems (Pfeifer et al., 2011; Botdorf et al., 2017).”
From Safe schools for teens: Preventing sexual abuse of urban poor teens, proof-of-concept study-improving teachers'and students'knowledge, skills and attitudes (2020) · cites this paper as Pfeifer et al., 2011
Ventral striatum responses to social stimuli are negatively associated with peer susceptibility in adolescence.
“its responses to social stimuli are negatively associated with peer susceptibility in adolescence (Pfeifer et al., 2011).”
From Feeling left out or just surprised? Neural correlates of social exclusion and overinclusion in adolescence (2020) · cites this paper as Pfeifer et al., 2011
The VS is known for processing both rewarding and aversive stimuli, and increases in VS responses to social stimuli have been associated with reduced susceptibility to peer influences.
“This region is known for processing both rewarding (Knutson et al., 2000; Sescousse et al., 2013) and aversive stimuli (Jensen et al., 2003; Levita et al., 2009), and increases in VS responses to social stimuli have been associated with reduced susceptibility to peer influences (Pfeifer et al., 2011).”
From Feeling left out or just surprised? Neural correlates of social exclusion and overinclusion in adolescence (2020) · cites this paper as Pfeifer et al., 2011
Ventromedial PFC and medial OFC activation likely reflects engagement in social cognitive processes, consistent with past research associating these regions with social and self-relevant evaluative processes.
“Also falling within our medial cluster of activation, ventromedial PFC and medial OFC activation likely reflects engagement in social cognitive processes, consistent with past research that has associated these regions with social and self-relevant evaluative processes (Burnett et al., 2011; Pfeifer et al., 2013; 2011).”
From Neural correlates of social exclusion across ages: A coordinate-based meta-analysis of functional MRI studies (2017) · cites this paper as Pfeifer et al., 2011
The ventral striatum was negatively functionally coupled with the amygdala when processing emotional faces.
“Pfeifer et al. (2011) also found that the ventral striatum was negatively functionally coupled with the amygdala when processing emotional faces, suggesting that the ventral striatum may serve to regulate and dampen heightened amygdala response to emotionally arousing stimuli.”
From Dopaminergic reward sensitivity can promote adolescent health: a new perspective on the mechanism of ventral striatum activation (2016) · cites this paper as Pfeifer et al. (2011)
Adolescents who showed the greatest increases in ventral striatum activation when processing emotions showed the greatest declines in risk taking.
“and adolescents who showed the greatest increases in ventral striatum activation when processing emotions showed the greatest declines in risk taking (Pfeifer et al., 2011).”
From Dopaminergic reward sensitivity can promote adolescent health: a new perspective on the mechanism of ventral striatum activation (2016) · cites this paper as Pfeifer et al., 2011
Longitudinal increases in ventral striatum reactivity were associated with longitudinal decreases in risky behavior as well as declines in susceptibility to peer influence.
“Longitudinal increases in ventral striatum reactivity were associated with longitudinal decreases in risky behavior as well as declines in susceptibility to peer influence.”
From Dopaminergic reward sensitivity can promote adolescent health: a new perspective on the mechanism of ventral striatum activation (2016) · cites this paper as Pfeifer et al. (2011)
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Our future: a Lancet commission on adolescent health and wellbeing
Patton, G. C., Sawyer, S. M., Santelli, J. S., Ross, D. A., Afifi, R., Allen, N. B., Arora, M., Azzopardi, P., Baldwin, W., Bonell, C., et al. (2016) · The Lancet · doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(16)00579-1 · Cited by 3,785 · see citing works
Understanding adolescence as a period of social–affective engagement and goal flexibility
Crone, E. A., & Dahl, R. E. (2012) · Nature Reviews Neuroscience · doi:10.1038/nrn3313 · Cited by 2,507 · see citing works
Is Adolescence a Sensitive Period for Sociocultural Processing?
Blakemore, S.-J., & Mills, K. L. (2014) · Annual Review of Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev-psych-010213-115202 · Cited by 2,264 · see citing works
The Teenage Brain: Peer Influences on Adolescent Decision Making
Albert, D., Chein, J., & Steinberg, L. (2013) · Current Directions in Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/0963721412471347 · Cited by 713 · see citing works
McRae, K., Gross, J. J., Weber, J., Robertson, E. R., Sokol-Hessner, P., Ray, R. D., Gabrieli, J. D. E., & Ochsner, K. N. (2012) · Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience · doi:10.1093/scan/nsr093 · Cited by 655 · see citing works
Neurocognitive bases of emotion regulation development in adolescence
Ahmed, S. P., Bittencourt-Hewitt, A., & Sebastian, C. L. (2015) · Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1016/j.dcn.2015.07.006 · Cited by 621 · see citing works
Media use and brain development during adolescence
Crone, E. A., & Konijn, E. A. (2018) · Nature Communications · doi:10.1038/s41467-018-03126-x · Cited by 464 · see citing works
Social re-orientation and brain development: An expanded and updated view
Nelson, E. E., Jarcho, J. M., & Guyer, A. E. (2016) · Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1016/j.dcn.2015.12.008 · Cited by 447 · see citing works
Hanson, J. L., Hariri, A. R., & Williamson, D. E. (2015) · Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2015.05.010 · Cited by 338 · see citing works
Pfeifer, J. H., & Allen, N. B. (2012) · Trends in Cognitive Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.tics.2012.04.011 · Cited by 299 · see citing works
Self-citationTelzer, E. H. (2016) · Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1016/j.dcn.2015.10.010 · Cited by 274 · see citing works
Is there heightened sensitivity to social reward in adolescence?
Foulkes, L., & Blakemore, S.-J. (2016) · Current Opinion in Neurobiology · doi:10.1016/j.conb.2016.06.016 · Cited by 240 · see citing works
Pace-Schott, E. F., Amole, M. C., Aue, T., Balconi, M., Bylsma, L. M., Critchley, H., Demaree, H. A., Friedman, B. H., Gooding, A. E. K., Gosseries, O., et al. (2019) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2019.05.002 · Cited by 221 · see citing works
Social status modulates neural activity in the mentalizing network
Muscatell, K. A., Morelli, S. A., Falk, E. B., Way, B. M., Pfeifer, J. H., Galinsky, A. D., Lieberman, M. D., Dapretto, M., & Eisenberger, N. I. (2012) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2012.01.080 · Cited by 213 · see citing works
Telzer, E. H., Fuligni, A. J., Lieberman, M. D., & Galván, A. (2014) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.1323014111 · Cited by 183 · see citing works
Swartz, J. R., Carrasco, M., Wiggins, J. L., Thomason, M. E., & Monk, C. S. (2014) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2013.08.018 · Cited by 158 · see citing works
Vijayakumar, N., Cheng, T. W., & Pfeifer, J. H. (2017) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2017.02.050 · Cited by 161 · see citing works
“…medial cluster of activation, ventromedial PFC and medial OFC activation likely reflects engagement in social cognitive processes, consistent with past research that has associated these regions with social and self-relevant evaluative processes (Burnett et al., 2011; Pfeifer et al., 2013, 2011).”
ResultSelf-citationPeake, S. J., Dishion, T. J., Stormshak, E. A., Moore, W. E., & Pfeifer, J. H. (2013) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2013.05.061 · Cited by 147 · see citing works
Self-citationPfeifer, J. H., Kahn, L. E., Merchant, J. S., Peake, S. J., Veroude, K., Masten, C. L., Lieberman, M. D., Mazziotta, J. C., & Dapretto, M. (2013) · The Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.4074-12.2013 · Cited by 125 · see citing works
Self-citationMoore, W. E., Pfeifer, J. H., Masten, C. L., Mazziotta, J. C., Iacoboni, M., & Dapretto, M. (2012) · Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience · doi:10.1093/scan/nsr066 · Cited by 115 · see citing works
Self-citationMothers know best: redirecting adolescent reward sensitivity toward safe behavior during risk taking
Telzer, E. H., Ichien, N. T., & Qu, Y. (2015) · Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience · doi:10.1093/scan/nsv026 · Cited by 117 · see citing works
van Duijvenvoorde, A. C. K., Westhoff, B., de Vos, F., Wierenga, L. M., & Crone, E. A. (2019) · Human Brain Mapping · doi:10.1002/hbm.24630 · Cited by 115 · see citing works
Telzer, E. H., Fuligni, A. J., Lieberman, M. D., & Galván, A. (2013) · Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1016/j.dcn.2012.08.004 · Cited by 112 · see citing works
Social media and sexual behavior among adolescents: is there a link?
Landry, M., Turner, M., Vyas, A., & Wood, S. (2017) · JMIR Public Health and Surveillance · doi:10.2196/publichealth.7149 · Cited by 100 · see citing works
Becoming a sexual being: The “elephant in the room” of adolescent brain development
Suleiman, A. B., Galván, A., Harden, K. P., & Dahl, R. E. (2017) · Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1016/j.dcn.2016.09.004 · Cited by 89 · see citing works
Cascio, C. N., Carp, J., O'Donnell, M. B., Tinney, F. J., Bingham, C. R., Shope, J. T., Ouimet, M. C., Pradhan, A. K., Simons-Morton, B. G., & Falk, E. B. (2015) · Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1162/jocn_a_00693 · Cited by 85 · see citing works
Adolescent brain development and contextual influences: a decade in review
Galván, A. (2021) · Journal of Research on Adolescence · doi:10.1111/jora.12687 · Cited by 77 · see citing works
Testosterone during puberty shifts emotional control from pulvinar to anterior prefrontal cortex
Tyborowska, A., Volman, I., Smeekens, S., Toni, I., & Roelofs, K. (2016) · The Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.3874-15.2016 · Cited by 67 · see citing works
Hardee, J. E., Cope, L. M., Munier, E. C., Welsh, R. C., Zucker, R. A., & Heitzeg, M. M. (2017) · Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience · doi:10.1093/scan/nsx021 · Cited by 54 · see citing works
Controversies about the enhanced vulnerability of the adolescent brain to develop addiction
Bernheim, A., Halfon, O., & Boutrel, B. (2013) · Frontiers in Pharmacology · doi:10.3389/fphar.2013.00118 · Cited by 49 · see citing works
Growing pains and pleasures: how emotional learning guides development
Nelson, E. E., Lau, J. Y. F., & Jarcho, J. M. (2014) · Trends in Cognitive Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.tics.2013.11.003 · Cited by 48 · see citing works
Madrid, B. J., Lopez, G. D., Dans, L. F., Fry, D. A., Duka-Pante, F. G. H., & Muyot, A. T. (2020) · Heliyon · doi:10.1016/j.heliyon.2020.e04080 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
Adolescent Brain Development and Progressive Legal Responsibility in the Latin American Context
Mercurio, E., García-López, E., Morales-Quintero, L. A., Llamas, N. E., Marinaro, J. Á., & Muñoz, J. M. (2020) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00627 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
Cheng, T. W., Vijayakumar, N., Flournoy, J. C., Op de Macks, Z., Peake, S. J., Flannery, J. E., Mobasser, A., Alberti, S. L., Fisher, P. A., & Pfeifer, J. H. (2020) · Cognitive, Affective, & Behavioral Neuroscience · doi:10.3758/s13415-020-00772-x · Cited by 29 · see citing works
Self-citationSusceptibility to peer influence in adolescents: Associations between psychophysiology and behavior
Meehan, Z. M., Hubbard, J. A., Moore, C. C., & Mlawer, F. (2024) · Development and Psychopathology · doi:10.1017/s0954579422000967 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Lee, K. H., Oppenheimer, C. W., Siegle, G. J., Ladouceur, C. D., Lee, G. E., Silk, J. S., & Dahl, R. E. (2018) · Journal of Research on Adolescence · doi:10.1111/jora.12360 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
- Authors
- Pfeifer, J. H., Masten, C. L., Moore, W. E., Oswald, T. M., Mazziotta, J. C., Iacoboni, M., & Dapretto, M.
- Affiliations
- University of Oregon (US)
- University of California, Davis (US)
- University of California, Los Angeles (US)
- Corresponding author
- Pfeifer, Jennifer H.
- Venue
- Neuron
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2011-03
- Volume
- 69
- Issue
- 5
- Pages
- 1029-1036
- ISSN
- 0896-6273 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC3840168
- OpenAlex
- W2132739539
- Cited by
- 294
- References
- 62
- Citations by year
- 2026: 14 · 2025: 14 · 2024: 10 · 2023: 15 · 2022: 23 · 2021: 14 · 2020: 25 · 2019: 21 · 2018: 29 · 2017: 21 · 2016: 24 · 2015: 21 · 2014: 21 · 2013: 19 · 2012: 17
- FWCI
- 10.24
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Neuron (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (acceptedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- Santa Fe Institute
- National Center for Research Resources (P41RR013642, RR 13642, RR00865, M01RR000865, C06RR012169)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neural and Behavioral Psychology Studies
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child and Adolescent Psychosocial and Emotional Development
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cellular and Molecular Neuroscience › Neurotransmitter Receptor Influence on Behavior
- Keywords
- adolescence, peer influence, risk-taking, emotional reactivity, neural development, ventral striatum, amygdala, ventromedial prefrontal cortex, temporal pole, emotion regulation
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Adolescent Behavior, Analysis of Variance, Brain, Brain Mapping, Child, Emotions, Facial Expression, Female, Humans, Image Processing, Computer-Assisted, Magnetic Resonance Imaging, Male, Peer Group, Photic Stimulation, Puberty, Surveys and Questionnaires, Risk-Taking, Adolescent Development
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Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
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