Temporal difference models and reward-related learning in the human brain
Open accessAbstract
Temporal difference learning has been proposed as a model for Pavlovian conditioning, in which an animal learns to predict delivery of reward following presentation of a conditioned stimulus (CS). A key component of this model is a prediction error signal, which, before learning, responds at the time of presentation of reward but, after learning, shifts its response to the time of onset of the CS. In order to test for regions manifesting this signal profile, subjects were scanned using event-related fMRI while undergoing appetitive conditioning with a pleasant taste reward. Regression analyses revealed that responses in ventral striatum and orbitofrontal cortex were significantly correlated with this error signal, suggesting that, during appetitive conditioning, computations described by temporal difference learning are expressed in the human brain.
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The signed prediction error indicates whether an outcome is better or worse than expected and plays a crucial role in changing the value allocated to cues, thereby guiding future decisions.
“First, the signed prediction error indicates whether an outcome is better or worse than expected, and thereby plays a crucial role in changing the value allocated to cues, thereby guiding future decisions [14–21].”
From Precision weighting of cortical unsigned prediction error signals benefits learning, is mediated by dopamine, and is impaired in psychosis (2021) · cites this paper as [17]
The Introduction (page unavailable) describes prediction error as the difference between expected and actual outcomes and says learning updates expectations in proportion to that error. It also describes positive errors for unexpected rewards and negative errors for omitted rewards, supporting the claim about sign and cue-value learning. The paper studies Pavlovian conditioning, however, and the cited passages do not establish that this process guides future decisions. (LLM, conf=0.84)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredMany early fMRI studies into prediction errors used model-free accounts in Pavlovian paradigms and located prediction errors in striatal BOLD.
“Many early fMRI studies into prediction errors used model-free accounts in Pavlovian paradigms and located prediction errors in striatal BOLD (Berns et al., 2001; O’Doherty, 2004; O’Doherty et al., 2003; Haruno et al., 2004).”
From Goals and Habits in the Brain (2013) · cites this paper as O’Doherty et al., 2003
Changes in striatum BOLD activity coincide with the process of learning how to predict rewards.
“These changes in striatum BOLD activity coincide with the process of learning how to predict rewards 15, 16 – an observation supported by electrophysiological properties of its dopaminergic afferents.”
From The social brain and reward: Social information processing in the human striatum (2014) · cites this paper as [15]
Human fMRI studies have found that VS activity correlates with reward prediction errors during tasks that feature exclusively Pavlovian reward associations.
“human fMRI studies have found that VS activity correlates with RPEs during tasks that feature exclusively Pavlovian reward associations [27,28]”
From Contributions of the striatum to learning, motivation, and performance: an associative account (2012) · cites this paper as [28]
Pupillary response dynamics are thought to reflect multiple different features, including sensory cues, arousal/task engagement, motor activity, and motivation.
“Pupillary response dynamics are thought to reflect multiple different features, including sensory cues36,37, arousal/task engagement38,39, motor activity40,41, and motivation42,43.”
From Revealing abrupt transitions from goal-directed to habitual behavior (2026) · cites this paper as [37]
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- Authors
- O'Doherty, J. P., Dayan, P., Friston, K., Critchley, H., & Dolan, R. J.
- Affiliations
- Gatsby Computational Neuroscience Unit (GB)
- UCL Queen Square Institute of Neurology (GB)
- Venue
- Neuron
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2003-04
- Volume
- 38
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 329-337
- ISSN
- 0896-6273 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2007414406
- Cited by
- 1,522
- References
- 36
- Citations by year
- 2026: 51 · 2025: 50 · 2024: 51 · 2023: 46 · 2022: 53 · 2021: 55 · 2020: 54 · 2019: 64 · 2018: 87 · 2017: 65 · 2016: 97 · 2015: 71 · 2014: 70 · 2013: 93 · 2012: 97
- FWCI
- 17.96
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Neuron (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- UCL Discovery (University College London) (submittedVersion)
- Max Planck Digital Library (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- MPG.PuRe (Max Planck Society) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- MPG.PuRe (Max Planck Society) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- Wellcome Trust
- Gatsby Charitable Foundation
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neural and Behavioral Psychology Studies
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cellular and Molecular Neuroscience › Neurotransmitter Receptor Influence on Behavior
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory and Neural Mechanisms
- Keywords
- temporal difference learning, prediction error signal, classical conditioning, appetitive conditioning, reward prediction, ventral striatum, orbitofrontal cortex, conditioned stimulus, human brain
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Adult, Brain, Brain Mapping, Conditioning, Classical, Corpus Striatum, Female, Frontal Lobe, Humans, Learning, Magnetic Resonance Imaging, Male, Reference Values, Reflex, Pupillary, Reward, Taste, Time Perception
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