The DOI matches its Crossref record; 422 of the 425 references it cites were found in a registry or an index, and 3 are not checked yet; none of the 384 sources its claims cite is checked for support yet.
Prefrontal cortex executive processes affected by stress in health and disease
Open accessAbstract
Prefrontal cortical executive functions comprise a number of cognitive capabilities necessary for goal directed behavior and adaptation to a changing environment. Executive dysfunction that leads to maladaptive behavior and is a symptom of psychiatric pathology can be instigated or exacerbated by stress. In this review we survey research addressing the impact of stress on executive function, with specific focus on working memory, attention, response inhibition, and cognitive flexibility. We then consider the neurochemical pathways underlying these cognitive capabilities and, where known, how stress alters them. Finally, we review work exploring potential pharmacological and non-pharmacological approaches that can ameliorate deficits in executive function. Both preclinical and clinical literature indicates that chronic stress negatively affects executive function. Although some of the circuitry and neurochemical processes underlying executive function have been characterized, a great deal is still unknown regarding how stress affects these processes. Additional work focusing on this question is needed in order to make progress on developing interventions that ameliorate executive dysfunction.
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Executive dysfunction that leads to maladaptive behavior and is a symptom of psychiatric pathology can be instigated or exacerbated by stress.”
§ Prefrontal cortex executive processes affected by stress in health and disease > Abstract
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Both preclinical and clinical literature indicates that chronic stress negatively affects executive function.”
§ Prefrontal cortex executive processes affected by stress in health and disease > Abstract
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes? Based: unclearIn the paper
“chronic stress levels which elicited subjective cognitive complaint, i.e., perceived difficulties with concentration, memory and decision making, were associated with poor performance in tests of attentional shifting and working memory (Stenfors et al 2013).”
§ Prefrontal cortex executive processes affected by stress in health and disease > 1. Introduction > 1.1. Overall impact of stress on executive function
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Stenfors et al 2013 source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIn the paper
“several prefrontal cortex regions including the anterior cingulate, the orbital cortex and the ventrolateral PFC have decreased grey matter volume in individuals with major depression and bipolar disorder (Drevets et al 2008, Lyoo et al 2004).”
§ Prefrontal cortex executive processes affected by stress in health and disease > 1. Introduction > 1.1. Overall impact of stress on executive function
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Drevets et al 2008, Lyoo et al 2004 source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIn the paper
“These structural changes in rats were also accompanied by increased biases toward habit behaviors.”
§ Prefrontal cortex executive processes affected by stress in health and disease > 1. Introduction > 1.1. Overall impact of stress on executive function
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Dias-Ferreira et al 2009 source
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Deficits in executive function following chronic stress are accompanied by morphological changes in the prefrontal cortex.”
§ Prefrontal cortex executive processes affected by stress in health and disease > 1. Introduction > 1.1. Overall impact of stress on executive function
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIn the paper
“In rodents, repeated stress and chronic corticosterone administration cause reduction in apical dendrites, debranching of pyramidal neurons, and dendritic spine loss in the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) (Cerqueira et al 2005a, Cerqueira et al 2007a, Cerqueira et al 2005b, Cerqueira et al 2007b, Cook & Wellman 2004, Dias-Ferreira et al 2009, Liston et al 2006, Michelsen et al 2007, Radley et al 2”
§ Prefrontal cortex executive processes affected by stress in health and disease > 1. Introduction > 1.1. Overall impact of stress on executive function
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Cerqueira et al 2005a, Cerqueira et al 2007a, Cerqueira et al 2005b, Cerqueira et al 2007b, Cook & Wellman 2004, Dias-Ferreira et al 2009, Liston et al 2006, Michelsen et al 2007, Radley et al 2006, Radley et al 2004, Silva-Gomez et al 2003
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Together, these results are consistent with an adaptive strategy that, for the short term, ensures allocation of resources to cognitive functions that increase sensory hypervigilance, scanning attention, and rapid (but more rigid) behavioral responses, at the expense of high order cognitive engagement.”
§ Prefrontal cortex executive processes affected by stress in health and disease > 1. Introduction > 1.1. Overall impact of stress on executive function
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIn the paper
“Similar immediate and detrimental effects of acute stress on cognitive flexibility and working memory have also been shown in rodents (Butts et al 2011, George et al 2015, Thai et al 2013).”
§ Prefrontal cortex executive processes affected by stress in health and disease > 1. Introduction > 1.1. Overall impact of stress on executive function
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Butts et al 2011, George et al 2015, Thai et al 2013 source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesNone of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Changes in volume, morphology and activation of the prefrontal cortex are also evident in subjects with mood disorders.”
§ Prefrontal cortex executive processes affected by stress in health and disease > 1. Introduction > 1.1. Overall impact of stress on executive function
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes
- Probably not a substantial claim. 9
- It may state two separate claims as one. 51
In the paper
“The stress response is a highly conserved process essential for survival under conditions of environmental challenge (McEwen et al 2015, McKlveen et al 2015).”
§ Prefrontal cortex executive processes affected by stress in health and disease > 1. Introduction > 1.1. Overall impact of stress on executive function
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites McEwen et al 2015, McKlveen et al 2015 source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“in some cases, executive impairment may be a direct consequence of an underlying disease process independent of stress.”
§ Prefrontal cortex executive processes affected by stress in health and disease > 1. Introduction
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:conditional· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
In the paper
“human fMRI studies of large-scale interconnectivity networks identified the central executive network (CEN) as one of three core neurocognitive networks.”
§ Prefrontal cortex executive processes affected by stress in health and disease > 1. Introduction
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Menon 2011 source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Anomalies in the recruitment of prefrontal circuitry and patterns of activation in major depression have also been shown (Johnstone et al 2007), with decreases in activation of the dorsolateral PFC (DLPFC) (Drevets 1998) and hyperactivation of the OFC (Biver et al 1994, Drevets et al 1992).”
§ Prefrontal cortex executive processes affected by stress in health and disease > 1. Introduction > 1.1. Overall impact of stress on executive function
What the sources say
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“rats exposed to chronic stress displayed atrophy of the associative network (dorsomedial striatum-prefrontal circuitry) and hypertrophy of the sensorimotor network responsible for automated responses (dorsolateral striatal-prefrontal circuitry).”
§ Prefrontal cortex executive processes affected by stress in health and disease > 1. Introduction > 1.1. Overall impact of stress on executive function
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Dias-Ferreira et al 2009 source
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“this work demonstrates stress produces structural and functinoal changes in fronto-striatal circuitry that reduces the ability of an individual to shift from automated behavior to goal-directed behavior and may be maladaptive in situations of change.”
§ Prefrontal cortex executive processes affected by stress in health and disease > 1. Introduction > 1.1. Overall impact of stress on executive function
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“both acute stressful life events and chronic stressors are strong risk factors for the development of mental illnesses such as mood disorders (Beck 2008, Kessler 1997), anxiety disorders and addictive disorders (Kessler et al 1997).”
§ Prefrontal cortex executive processes affected by stress in health and disease > 1. Introduction
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Beck 2008, Kessler 1997 source
- Not checked yetcites Kessler et al 1997
Strength:boosted· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“processes underlying working memory, problem solving and cognitive flexibility are negatively affected by acute stress (Oei et al 2006, Plessow et al 2011, Plessow et al 2012, Schoofs et al 2008, Schoofs et al 2009, Steinhauser et al 2007).”
§ Prefrontal cortex executive processes affected by stress in health and disease > 1. Introduction > 1.1. Overall impact of stress on executive function
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Oei et al 2006, Plessow et al 2011, Plessow et al 2012, Schoofs et al 2008, Schoofs et al 2009, Steinhauser et al 2007 source
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“In the aftermath of an acute stress exposure, executive processes improve and these effects have been shown to correlate with genomic corticosteroid actions (Henckens et al 2011, Het & Wolf 2007, Maheu et al 2005, Oei et al 2009, Putman et al 2007).”
§ Prefrontal cortex executive processes affected by stress in health and disease > 1. Introduction > 1.1. Overall impact of stress on executive function
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Henckens et al 2011, Het & Wolf 2007, Maheu et al 2005, Oei et al 2009, Putman et al 2007 source
Strength:boosted· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“individuals with major depressive disorder show impairments in working memory (Landro et al 2001, Rose & Ebmeier 2006) and cognitive flexibility on the Wisconsin card sorting test (Merriam et al 1999).”
§ Prefrontal cortex executive processes affected by stress in health and disease > 1. Introduction > 1.1. Overall impact of stress on executive function
What the sources say
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Acute stress in humans has been shown to activate saliency networks centered around the amygdala, cingulate cortex, hypothalamus, insula, striatum, and locus coeruleus, and is responsible for enhancing sensory gain and environmental scanning, resulting in better performance (Cousijn et al 2010, Oei et al 2012, van Marle et al 2009, van Marle et al 2010).”
§ Prefrontal cortex executive processes affected by stress in health and disease > 1. Introduction > 1.1. Overall impact of stress on executive function
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Cousijn et al 2010, Oei et al 2012, van Marle et al 2009, van Marle et al 2010 source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“about 1 hour after exposure to a stressful stimulus, when catecholamine levels are low but glucocorticoid levels are still elevated, the neurocognitive processes associated with the salience network weaken (Henckens et al 2012, Henckens et al 2010), while working memory and the ability to perform cognitive tasks improve, along with reduced anxiety behavior.”
§ Prefrontal cortex executive processes affected by stress in health and disease > 1. Introduction > 1.1. Overall impact of stress on executive function
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Henckens et al 2012, Henckens et al 2010 source
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“in other brain regions, such as amygdala, orbitofrontal cortex (OFC), and putamen, chronic stress increases dendritic elaboration and produces structural hypertrophy (Dias-Ferreira et al 2009, Liston et al 2006).”
§ Prefrontal cortex executive processes affected by stress in health and disease > 1. Introduction > 1.1. Overall impact of stress on executive function
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Dias-Ferreira et al 2009, Liston et al 2006 source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“These data suggest that GABA-related “overinhibition” may underlie working memory impairment in schizophrenia, and that targeting this system may offer a strategy for treating such impairments.”
§ Prefrontal cortex executive processes affected by stress in health and disease > 3. Working Memory > 3.3. Neurochemical mechanisms and pharmacological targets
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“lorazepam, a positive modulator at the GABAA receptor benzodiazepine site, impaired working memory in healthy controls, with even more impairment in the patient group.”
§ Prefrontal cortex executive processes affected by stress in health and disease > 3. Working Memory > 3.3. Neurochemical mechanisms and pharmacological targets
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Menzies et al 2007 source
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“low doses administered to stably medicated patients can improve cognitive performance in working memory tasks, likely via prefrontal D1 receptor activation (Barch & Carter 2005, Goldberg et al 1991)”
§ Prefrontal cortex executive processes affected by stress in health and disease > 3. Working Memory > 3.3. Neurochemical mechanisms and pharmacological targets
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Barch & Carter 2005, Goldberg et al 1991
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:conditional· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“the GABAA receptor antagonist flumazenil significantly improved working memory in the patient group but impaired working memory in healthy controls (Menzies et al 2007).”
§ Prefrontal cortex executive processes affected by stress in health and disease > 3. Working Memory > 3.3. Neurochemical mechanisms and pharmacological targets
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Menzies et al 2007 source
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“FG7142 also mimics the increased norepinephrine release in the PFC that accompanies stress, implicating a role for norepinephrine in the detrimental effects on PFC-mediated working memory.”
§ Prefrontal cortex executive processes affected by stress in health and disease > 3. Working Memory > 3.3. Neurochemical mechanisms and pharmacological targets
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Murphy et al 1996 source
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“working memory deficits are present in a wide range of stress-related psychiatric illnesses, such as PTSD (Veltmeyer et al 2006), depression (Rose & Ebmeier 2006), substance dependence (Bechara & Martin 2004), schizophrenia (Stone et al 1998), and ADHD (Martinussen et al 2005).”
§ Prefrontal cortex executive processes affected by stress in health and disease > 3. Working Memory > 3.2. Effects of stress on working memory
What the sources say
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“stress-induced working memory impairments are accompanied by increased prefrontal dopamine turnover and release, similar to the prefrontal dopamine dysfunction seen in schizophrenia.”
§ Prefrontal cortex executive processes affected by stress in health and disease > 3. Working Memory > 3.3. Neurochemical mechanisms and pharmacological targets
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We excluded articles where the deficits in executive functions were confounded by neurological conditions or physical trauma.”
§ Prefrontal cortex executive processes affected by stress in health and disease > 2. Methods
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
In the paper
“Administration of stimulants to unmedicated schizophrenic patients can enhance positive symptoms (Angrist et al 1980, van Kammen et al 1982), which is likely due to subcortical D2 receptor activation.”
§ Prefrontal cortex executive processes affected by stress in health and disease > 3. Working Memory > 3.3. Neurochemical mechanisms and pharmacological targets
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Angrist et al 1980, van Kammen et al 1982 source
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“vortioxetine reverses working memory impairments caused by serotonin depletion, effects attributed to its 5HT1A agonism (du Jardin et al 2014)”
§ Prefrontal cortex executive processes affected by stress in health and disease > 3. Working Memory > Serotonin
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites du Jardin et al 2014 source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Lesions of the mPFC, as well as compromised connectivity of the inferior PFC to striatal, cerebellar, and parietal regions, result in deficits in attention in rats and humans (Maddux & Holland 2011, Muir et al 1996), (Arnsten 2009, Arnsten & Rubia 2012, Aron & Poldrack 2005).”
§ Prefrontal cortex executive processes affected by stress in health and disease > 4. Attention
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Maddux & Holland 2011, Muir et al 1996
- Not checked yetcites Arnsten 2009, Arnsten & Rubia 2012, Aron & Poldrack 2005 source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Attention is another executive function of the PFC that is affected by an individual’s emotional and motivational state (Goetz et al 2008) and is often impaired by stress in both humans and in animal models.”
§ Prefrontal cortex executive processes affected by stress in health and disease > 4. Attention
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Goetz et al 2008 source
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“modafinil enhances working memory in healthy individuals as well as individuals with a wide range of psychiatric illnesses, and this improvement is likely due to modafinil’s catecholaminergic actions (Kalechstein et al 2010, Kalechstein et al 2013, Minzenberg & Carter 2008).”
§ Prefrontal cortex executive processes affected by stress in health and disease > 3. Working Memory > 3.3. Neurochemical mechanisms and pharmacological targets
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Kalechstein et al 2010, Kalechstein et al 2013, Minzenberg & Carter 2008 source
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“students in the negative stressor condition (where stress was induced by engaging in a competitive computer task) were quicker to switch their attention from negative words to positive or neutral words, and participants who had higher scores on the Beck Depression Inventory were slower to redirect their attention from negative to positive words (Ellenbogen et al 2002).”
§ Prefrontal cortex executive processes affected by stress in health and disease > 4. Attention > 4.2. Effects of stress on attention
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Ellenbogen et al 2002 source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“modafinil, an atypical dopamine transporter inhibitor, reverses chronic stress-induced impairments in a spontaneous alternation task in mice and improves working memory in non-stressed animals (Pierard et al 2006).”
§ Prefrontal cortex executive processes affected by stress in health and disease > 3. Working Memory > 3.3. Neurochemical mechanisms and pharmacological targets
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Pierard et al 2006 source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Military personnel with a high practice time of mindfulness training during the high-stress pre-deployment period demonstrated increases in working memory capacity, while those in the military control group or those with low practice time demonstrated decreases in working memory.”
§ Prefrontal cortex executive processes affected by stress in health and disease > 3. Working Memory > 3.4. Non-pharmacological treatments
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Jha et al 2010 source
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“systemic administration of fluoxetine did reverse a predator stress-induced deficit in working memory, while the benzodiazepine diazepam was not effective (Hage et al 2004).”
§ Prefrontal cortex executive processes affected by stress in health and disease > 3. Working Memory > Serotonin
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Hage et al 2004 source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“expressive writing, in particular about a negative stressful experience, produced higher increases in working memory capacity in college freshmen compared to those writing about a trivial topic; these gains were associated with decreases in intrusive and avoidant thinking (Klein & Boals 2001).”
§ Prefrontal cortex executive processes affected by stress in health and disease > 3. Working Memory > 3.4. Non-pharmacological treatments
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Klein & Boals 2001
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Taken together, these studies suggest that the effects of stress on attention may depend on the amount of time one is subjected to stress (i.e. chronic, acute, and experimentally-induced brief stress) and the emotional valence of the stimuli presented during the task.”
§ Prefrontal cortex executive processes affected by stress in health and disease > 4. Attention > 4.2. Effects of stress on attention
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Another form of behavioral therapy, mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR), improves subjects’ ability to direct attention and detect changes in stimuli through mindfulness training (Jha et al 2007).”
§ Prefrontal cortex executive processes affected by stress in health and disease > 4. Attention > 4.4. Non-pharmacological treatments
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Jha et al 2007 source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“OFC and infralimbic (IL) mPFC have been shown to mediate response inhibition, as lesions of these areas produce premature responding in the 5-CSRTT and SSRT (Chudasama et al 2003, Eagle et al 2008a, Eagle & Robbins 2003).”
§ Prefrontal cortex executive processes affected by stress in health and disease > 5. Response Inhibition
What the sources say
Strength:boosted· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“The α1-adrenoceptor antagonist prazosin and the αβ1/β/α2 adrenergic receptor antagonist propranolol produced deficits in attention, the α2-adrenoceptor antagonist atipamezole improved continued attention (Bari & Robbins 2013b).”
§ Prefrontal cortex executive processes affected by stress in health and disease > 4. Attention > 4.3. Neurochemical mechanisms and pharmacological targets
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Bari & Robbins 2013b
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Activation of α2 autoreceptors improved attention in some studies (Smith & Nutt 1996), but not in others (Fernando et al 2012).”
§ Prefrontal cortex executive processes affected by stress in health and disease > 4. Attention > 4.3. Neurochemical mechanisms and pharmacological targets
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Smith & Nutt 1996
- Not checked yetcites Fernando et al 2012 source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“drugs such as methylphenidate that function by increasing extracellular dopamine through DAT inhibition are routinely used to target attention deficits, and these effects are context-dependent (Volkow et al 2005).”
§ Prefrontal cortex executive processes affected by stress in health and disease > 4. Attention > 4.3. Neurochemical mechanisms and pharmacological targets
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Volkow et al 2005 source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Within depressed patients, one session of TMS targeted to the left DLPFC increased activity within the region and increased attention in an affective go-no-go task (Bermpohl et al 2006).”
§ Prefrontal cortex executive processes affected by stress in health and disease > 4. Attention > 4.4. Non-pharmacological treatments
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Bermpohl et al 2006 source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Additionally, the role of striatal D2 receptors have been linked to impulsivity and addictive behavior (Volkow et al 2007).”
§ Prefrontal cortex executive processes affected by stress in health and disease > 5. Response Inhibition > 5.3. Neurochemical mechanisms and pharmacological targets
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Volkow et al 2007 source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Additionally, both NMDA-R antagonism and 5-HT2A receptor activation result in increased glutamate release (Aghajanian & Marek 2000, Moghaddam et al 1997).”
§ Prefrontal cortex executive processes affected by stress in health and disease > 5. Response Inhibition > 5.3. Neurochemical mechanisms and pharmacological targets
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Aghajanian & Marek 2000
- Not checked yetcites Moghaddam et al 1997 source
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Microinjections of fluoxetine into the OFC increase response inhibition in rats already showing impulsive tendencies, but have no effect in low impulsivity rats. This finding indicates direct effects of SSRIs within the PFC of animals already exhibiting a deficit, but do not enhance response inhibition in normal animals (Darna et al 2015).”
§ Prefrontal cortex executive processes affected by stress in health and disease > 5. Response Inhibition > 5.3. Neurochemical mechanisms and pharmacological targets
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Darna et al 2015 source
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“The serotonergic system has long been implicated in the regulation of behavioral inhibition (Evenden 1999, Linnoila et al 1983).”
§ Prefrontal cortex executive processes affected by stress in health and disease > 5. Response Inhibition > 5.3. Neurochemical mechanisms and pharmacological targets
What the sources say
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“which may increase levels of 5-HT and norepinephrine leading to increased NMDA-R function within the mPFC, and subsequent beneficial effects on response inhibition measures (Carli et al 2011, Carli & Invernizzi 2014, Darna et al 2015, Mirjana et al 2004).”
§ Prefrontal cortex executive processes affected by stress in health and disease > 5. Response Inhibition > 5.4. Non-pharmacological treatments
What the sources say
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“In comparing patients before and after 10 weeks of VNS, the treatment significantly improved response inhibition, as well as other cognitive symptoms (Sackeim et al 2001).”
§ Prefrontal cortex executive processes affected by stress in health and disease > 5. Response Inhibition > 5.4. Non-pharmacological treatments
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Sackeim et al 2001
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“This form of learning is mediated by the orbitofrontal cortex (OFC), as evidenced by impairments in reversal learning following lesions of this region in humans (Fellows & Farah 2003, Hornak et al 2004), monkeys (Dias et al 1996), mice (Bissonette et al 2008) and rats (McAlonan & Brown 2003).”
§ Prefrontal cortex executive processes affected by stress in health and disease > 6. Cognitive flexibility > 6.2. Reversal learning
What the sources say
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Similarly, phencyclidine (PCP), when used at doses to mimic schizophrenia-like symptoms in rats, impaired reversal in some cases (Abdul-Monim et al 2007), but in other studies it was found to have no effect (Brigman et al 2010, Janhunen et al 2015), or to even improve reversal learning (Dix et al 2010, Fellini et al 2014, McAllister et al 2015).”
§ Prefrontal cortex executive processes affected by stress in health and disease > 6. Cognitive flexibility > 6.2. Reversal learning
What the sources say
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Other brain regions important for reversal learning are the striatum (Cools et al 2002, Rogers et al 2000), amygdala (Izquierdo et al 2013, Schoenbaum et al 2003, Wassum & Izquierdo 2015) and the hippocampus (Mala et al 2015).”
§ Prefrontal cortex executive processes affected by stress in health and disease > 6. Cognitive flexibility > 6.2. Reversal learning
What the sources say
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“other activators of the JAK2/STAT3 pathway, such as interleukin 6 (IL-6), have been shown to correct the reversal learning deficits induced by cold stress, and blockade of IL-6 signaling or JAK2 inhibition produce deficits in reversal learning (Donegan et al 2014).”
§ Prefrontal cortex executive processes affected by stress in health and disease > 6. Cognitive flexibility > 6.2. Reversal learning
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Donegan et al 2014 source
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“In a recent study, the ability of ketamine to correct stress-induced reversal learning deficits was accompanied by decreased field potentials in the OFC evoked by activation of mediodorsothalamic afferents, and both effects required activation of the JAK2/STAT3 signaling pathway in the OFC (Patton et al 2016).”
§ Prefrontal cortex executive processes affected by stress in health and disease > 6. Cognitive flexibility > 6.2. Reversal learning
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Patton et al 2016
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Indeed, LTD is required for optimal reversal learning: administration of a ionotropic glutamate receptor NMDA subunit 2B (GluN2B) selective antagonist or blockade of GluA-R internalization prevents LTD in the hippocampus, and produces a disruption of spatial reversal learning in the Morris water maze (Dong et al 2013, Duffy et al 2008, Mills et al 2014).”
§ Prefrontal cortex executive processes affected by stress in health and disease > 6. Cognitive flexibility > 6.2. Reversal learning
What the sources say
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Thus, it is possible that ketamine’s beneficial effects on reversal learning are due to regulation of AMPA-R transmission.”
§ Prefrontal cortex executive processes affected by stress in health and disease > 6. Cognitive flexibility > 6.2. Reversal learning
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:conditional· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“The effects of vortioxetine are not due solely to its ability to inhibit serotonin reuptake, since the drug was effective in correcting reversal learning deficits induced by serotonin depletion with PCPA (Wallace et al 2014).”
§ Prefrontal cortex executive processes affected by stress in health and disease > 6. Cognitive flexibility > 6.2. Reversal learning
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Wallace et al 2014 source
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In animal models, the outcomes of experiments with acute stressors have been mixed, possibly due to varying intensity of the stress used.”
§ Prefrontal cortex executive processes affected by stress in health and disease > 6. Cognitive flexibility > 6.3. Set-shifting
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:conditional· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“In monkeys, serotonin depletion within the prefrontal cortex using 5,7-dihydroxytryptamine caused reversal learning deficits, but not set-shifting deficits (Clarke et al 2004, Clarke et al 2005).”
§ Prefrontal cortex executive processes affected by stress in health and disease > 6. Cognitive flexibility > 6.2. Reversal learning
What the sources say
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“After 8–12 weeks of CBT, these individuals improved both their YBOCS and reversal task scores”
§ Prefrontal cortex executive processes affected by stress in health and disease > 6. Cognitive flexibility > 6.2. Reversal learning
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Freyer et al 2011 source
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“depletion of tryptophan in healthy human volunteers homozygous for the long allele of 5-HTT reduced the capacity of the individuals to utilize negative feedback information from punishment and impaired performance on reversal learning.”
§ Prefrontal cortex executive processes affected by stress in health and disease > 6. Cognitive flexibility > 6.2. Reversal learning
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Finger et al 2007 source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Although serotonin depletion has been shown to impair reversal learning but not set-shifting (Clarke et al 2005, Lapiz-Bluhm et al 2009)”
§ Prefrontal cortex executive processes affected by stress in health and disease > 6. Cognitive flexibility > 6.3. Set-shifting
What the sources say
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“available therapies are only partially effective at ameliorating cognitive symptoms.”
§ Prefrontal cortex executive processes affected by stress in health and disease > 7. Concluding remarks
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The impact of stress on executive function is well documented both in humans and in animal models.”
§ Prefrontal cortex executive processes affected by stress in health and disease > 7. Concluding remarks
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
The paper relies on this without support.
Findings from animal models of stress and executive function can be generalized to humans.
“Paralleling human studies, chronic stress impairs working memory (Arnsten et al 2012, Barsegyan et al 2010, Mizoguchi et al 2000) as well as cognitive flexibility”
The paper relies on this without support.
The stress manipulations used in the cited animal and human studies are valid models of chronic stress as it occurs in humans.
“conditions that are the hallmarks of chronic stress”
The paper relies on this without support.
Orbitofrontal cortex damage does not impair extradimensional shifting.
“OFC damage does not impair ED shifting, and lateral or medial PFC damage does not impair reversal learning, suggesting a functional dissociation between those regions.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Lateral or medial prefrontal cortex damage does not impair reversal learning.
“OFC damage does not impair ED shifting, and lateral or medial PFC damage does not impair reversal learning, suggesting a functional dissociation between those regions.”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“As part of the frontoparietal network (188), the parietal cortex interacts with core PFC regions to support attention and integration (189); hypoactivation due to PFC dysconnectivity (175) may exacerbate cognitive inflexibility by impairing spatial attention and working memory updating (190), indirectly amplifying DMN rumination in OCD (191).”
From Neural mechanisms underlying cognitive inflexibility in obsessive-compulsive disorder: a review (2026) · cites this paper as [189]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.
The cited serotonin-transporter study used rats, not mice
MinorThe review identifies the knockout animals as mice, while the cited reference identifies them as rats.
“SERT knockout mice perform better than control mice on the set-shifting task of AST (Nonkes et al 2012)”
“296. Nonkes LJ van de V II de Leeuw MJ Wijlaars LP Maes JH Homberg JR 2012 Serotonin transporter knockout rats show improved strategy set-shifting and reduced latent inhibition”
The cited amantadine study used rats, not mice
MinorThe review attributes the spatial reversal-learning result to mice, but the cited reference describes a rat model.
“amantadine, a low affinity NMDA-R antagonist, has been shown to correct deficits in spatial reversal learning in the Morris water maze in mice that experience a combination of chronic unpredictable stress and isolation feeding (Yu et al 2016)”
“409. Yu M Zhang Y Chen X Zhang T 2016 Antidepressant-like effects and possible mechanisms of amantadine on cognitive and synaptic deficits in a rat model of chronic stress”
A cited stimulation study used tDCS, not TMS
MinorThe described working-memory study is presented as a TMS session, but the cited reference identifies the intervention as tDCS.
“one session of TMS of the DLPFC was sufficient to improve working memory on the n-back task fifteen minutes later in antidepressant-free patients diagnosed with depression (Oliveira et al 2013)”
“303. Oliveira JF Zanao TA Valiengo L Lotufo PA Bensenor IM 2013 Acute working memory improvement after tDCS in antidepressant-free patients with major depressive disorder”
The cited attention study names a different drug
MinorThe review names citalopram, but the cited study's title names escitalopram.
“citalopram reduced attentional performance compared to placebo; this effect strongly correlated with high-transcription variants of 5-HT2A and 5-HT1B receptors (Lenze et al 2013)”
“223. Lenze EJ Dixon D Nowotny P Lotrich FE Dore PM 2013 Escitalopram reduces attentional performance in anxious older adults with high-expression genetic variants at serotonin 2A and 1B receptors”
VNS is called noninvasive despite the described electrode placement
MinorThe treatment is described as noninvasive, although the review's own description places an electrode around the vagus nerve.
“Finally, another noninvasive treatment for impulse control in current use is VNS.”
“In VNS, an electrode surrounds the left vagus nerve and communicates with a pulse generator to send pulses of a programmed width, frequency, current, and cycle to the vagus nerve (Schachter & Saper 1998).”
8-OH-DPAT is assigned opposite receptor actions
MinorThe review first identifies 8-OH-DPAT as a 5-HT1A agonist, then calls its action 5-HT1A antagonism.
“a selective 5-HT1A agonist 8-OH-DPAT had beneficial effects, increasing attention”
“5-HT1A antagonism with 8-OH-DPAT within the PFC was also able to block CPP-induced elevations in extracellular glutamate”
Reversal-learning effect conflicts with the cited reference
MinorThe review says genetic inactivation of the serotonin transporter causes reversal-learning deficits, but the cited reference says it improves reversal learning.
“genetic inactivation of 5-HTT in mice produces deficits in reversal learning (Brigman et al 2010)”
“58. Brigman JL Mathur P Harvey-White J Izquierdo A Saksida LM 2010 Pharmacological or genetic inactivation of the serotonin transporter improves reversal learning in mice”
D2/D3 drug effect is reversed in the cited reference
MinorThe review describes the rat study as testing D2/D3 antagonists, whereas its cited reference identifies the drug as a D2/D3 agonist. That distinction affects the review's interpretation of receptor down-regulation.
“Impaired reversal learning following D2/D3 antagonists was observed in rats (Boulougouris et al 2009)”
“54. Boulougouris V Castane A Robbins TW 2009 Dopamine D2/D3 receptor agonist quinpirole impairs spatial reversal learning in rats: investigation of D3 receptor involvement in persistent behavior”
Citations
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Metadata
- Authors
- Girotti, M., Adler, S. M., Bulin, S. E., Fucich, E. A., Paredes, D., & Morilak, D. A.
- Affiliations
- The University of Texas at San Antonio Health Science Center (US)
- Corresponding author
- Girotti, Milena
- Venue
- Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology and Biological Psychiatry
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2018-07
- Volume
- 85
- Pages
- 161-179
- ISSN
- 0278-5846 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC5756532
- OpenAlex
- W2725639589
- Cited by
- 176
- References
- 422
- Citations by year
- 2026: 29 · 2025: 35 · 2024: 21 · 2023: 21 · 2022: 18 · 2021: 17 · 2020: 19 · 2019: 11 · 2018: 5
- FWCI
- 1.07
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology and Biological Psychiatry (acceptedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (acceptedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- NIH (MH072672, MH053851, MH100652)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neural and Behavioral Psychology Studies
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Behavioral Neuroscience › Stress Responses and Cortisol
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cellular and Molecular Neuroscience › Neurotransmitter Receptor Influence on Behavior
- Keywords
- prefrontal cortex, executive function, chronic stress, executive dysfunction, working memory, attention, response inhibition, cognitive flexibility, neurochemical pathways, stress-related psychiatric disorders, pharmacological interventions, non-pharmacological treatment
- MeSH terms
- Animals, Humans, Stress, Psychological, Prefrontal Cortex, Executive Function
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