Mechanisms of stress in the brain
Open accessAbstract
The brain is the central organ involved in perceiving and adapting to social and physical stressors via multiple interacting mediators, from the cell surface to the cytoskeleton to epigenetic regulation and nongenomic mechanisms. A key result of stress is structural remodeling of neural architecture, which may be a sign of successful adaptation, whereas persistence of these changes when stress ends indicates failed resilience. Excitatory amino acids and glucocorticoids have key roles in these processes, along with a growing list of extra- and intracellular mediators that includes endocannabinoids and brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF). The result is a continually changing pattern of gene expression mediated by epigenetic mechanisms involving histone modifications and CpG methylation and hydroxymethylation as well as by the activity of retrotransposons that may alter genomic stability. Elucidation of the underlying mechanisms of plasticity and vulnerability of the brain provides a basis for understanding the efficacy of interventions for anxiety and depressive disorders as well as age-related cognitive decline.
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Molecular expression, synaptic plasticity, and structural plasticity changes in nucleus accumbens medium spiny neurons are implicated in depression symptoms.
“Molecular expression, synaptic plasticity, and structural plasticity changes in NAc MSNs are implicated in depression symptomology (22, 23).”
From Emerging Role for Nucleus Accumbens Medium Spiny Neuron Subtypes in Depression (2017) · cites this paper as [22]
Stress-induced dysfunction in forebrain excitatory transmission led to the excitatory synaptic transmission hypothesis of depression.
“Stress-induced dysfunction in forebrain excitatory transmission has led to the development of the excitatory synaptic transmission hypothesis of depression (22, 32, 33).”
From Emerging Role for Nucleus Accumbens Medium Spiny Neuron Subtypes in Depression (2017) · cites this paper as [22]
Stress can decrease activity across frontal limbic regions through dendritic spine and arbor atrophy and through disruption of synaptic plasticity and intrinsic cellular mechanisms.
“Stress can lead to functional decreases in activity across these regions through structural dendritic spine and arbor atrophy, as well as disruption in synaptic plasticity and intrinsic cellular mechanisms (22).”
From Emerging Role for Nucleus Accumbens Medium Spiny Neuron Subtypes in Depression (2017) · cites this paper as [22]
Excitatory synaptic transmission is impaired in frontal limbic regions including the prefrontal cortex and hippocampus after stress.
“It is well known that excitatory synaptic transmission is impaired in many frontal limbic brain regions including the prefrontal cortex and hippocampus following stress (22).”
From Emerging Role for Nucleus Accumbens Medium Spiny Neuron Subtypes in Depression (2017) · cites this paper as [22]
The stress response is highly conserved and essential for survival under environmental challenge.
“The stress response is a highly conserved process essential for survival under conditions of environmental challenge (McEwen et al 2015, McKlveen et al 2015).”
From Prefrontal cortex executive processes affected by stress in health and disease (2018) · cites this paper as McEwen et al 2015, McKlveen et al 2015
Tapering does not appear to affect antidepressant withdrawal reactions, and persistent postwithdrawal disorders can occur months after discontinuation.
“Tapering does not appear to affect the occurrence of withdrawal reactions with antidepressant drugs [39,40] and persistent postwithdrawal disorders months after discontinuation may occur [41].”
From Iatrogenic Factors in Psychopathology (2019) · cites this paper as [40]
Chronic stress exposure increases the risk of developing various neuropsychiatric illnesses.
“Chronic stress exposure increases the risk of developing various neuropsychiatric illnesses.”
From Chronic Stress Remodels Synapses in an Amygdala Circuit-Specific Manner (2019) · cites this paper as [2]
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Self-citationThe Role of Transposable Elements in Health and Diseases of the Central Nervous System
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Self-citationStress-induced spine loss in the medial amygdala is mediated by tissue-plasminogen activator
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Self-citationAcute and chronic restraint stress alter the incidence of social conflict in male rats
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Stress and Anxiety Across the Lifespan: Structural Plasticity and Epigenetic Regulation
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NMDA Receptor Blockade Alters Stress-Induced Dendritic Remodeling in Medial Prefrontal Cortex
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RNA–protein interactions in human health and disease
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Stress and the dynamic genome: Steroids, epigenetics, and the transposome
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Self-citationCan Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Be Prevented with Glucocorticoids?
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Regulatory Role of Cannabinoid Receptor 1 in Stress-Induced Excitotoxicity and Neuroinflammation
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Self-citationGlucocorticoid receptors modulate mitochondrial function
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Self-citationCellular and molecular mechanisms of hippocampal activation by acute stress are age-dependent
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Self-citationEnvironmental stress and transposon transcription in the mammalian brain
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Self-citationStress-Induced Lipocalin-2 Controls Dendritic Spine Formation and Neuronal Activity in the Amygdala
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“Prolonged imbalances can lead to illness (e.g. Hunter and McEwen, 2013; McEwen et al., 2015) that remodels the brain (Crossley et al., 2014; Goodkind et al., 2015) and the sympathetic nervous system, with corresponding behavior changes (Sloan et al., 2007; Capitanio and Cole, 2015; for a review,…”
The Semantics of Microglia Activation: Neuroinflammation, Homeostasis, and Stress
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Epigenetics, Development, and Psychopathology
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Self-citationIatrogenic Factors in Psychopathology
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A predictive coding framework of allostatic–interoceptive overload in frontotemporal dementia
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Understanding and Managing Withdrawal Syndromes After Discontinuation of Antidepressant Drugs
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Portable and wearable real-time stress monitoring: A critical review
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The depressor axis of the renin–angiotensin system and brain disorders: a translational approach
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Incubation of depression: ECM assembly and parvalbumin interneurons after stress
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The pubertal stress recalibration hypothesis: Potential neural and behavioral consequences
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Expression of the PPM1F Gene Is Regulated by Stress and Associated with Anxiety and Depression
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Intrinsic timescales and predictive allostatic interoception in brain health and disease
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Perinatal stress and epigenetics.
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Putative neural consequences of captivity for elephants and cetaceans
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Allostasis, health, and development in Latin America
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Epigenetic mechanisms within the cingulate cortex regulate innate anxiety-like behavior
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Restraint Stress in Mice Alters Set of 25 miRNAs Which Regulate Stress- and Depression-Related mRNAs
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Allostatic interoception and brain health: From neurodegeneration to social adversities
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Global Adversities, the Media, and Mental Health
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- Authors
- McEwen, B. S., Bowles, N. P., Gray, J. D., Hill, M. N., Hunter, R. G., Karatsoreos, I. N., & Nasca, C.
- Affiliations
- Rockefeller University (US)
- University of Calgary (CA)
- University of Massachusetts Boston (US)
- Washington State University (US)
- Corresponding author
- McEwen, Bruce S
- ORCID
- Venue
- Nature Neuroscience
- Published
- 2015-09-25
- Volume
- 18
- Issue
- 10
- Pages
- 1353-1363
- ISSN
- 1097-6256 (ISSN-L)
- 1546-1726
- PMC
- PMC4933289
- OpenAlex
- W1958676502
- Cited by
- 1,386
- References
- 140
- Citations by year
- 2026: 85 · 2025: 118 · 2024: 141 · 2023: 132 · 2022: 150 · 2021: 146 · 2020: 125 · 2019: 132 · 2018: 125 · 2017: 122 · 2016: 101 · 2015: 7
- FWCI
- 9.45
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Licence
- www.springer.com/tdm (tdm)
- Locations
- Nature Neuroscience (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- American Foundation for Suicide Prevention
- Hope for Depression Research Foundation
- National Institutes of Health
- National Institute of Mental Health (R01 MH41256, F32MH102065, R01MH041256)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Behavioral Neuroscience › Stress Responses and Cortisol
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cellular and Molecular Neuroscience › Neuroscience and Neuropharmacology Research
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory and Neural Mechanisms
- Keywords
- stress, brain adaptation, neuroplasticity, resilience, epigenetic regulation, histone modifications, DNA methylation, hydroxymethylation, retrotransposons, glucocorticoids, excitatory amino acids, endocannabinoids, brain-derived neurotrophic factor, anxiety disorders, depression, age-related cognitive decline, cytoskeleton, gene expression
- MeSH terms
- Animals, Brain, Humans, Neuronal Plasticity, Stress, Psychological, Epigenesis, Genetic
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