The DOI matches its Crossref record; 54 of the 55 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; 1 of the 91 sources its claims cite were checked for support.
The visual word form area: expertise for reading in the fusiform gyrus
Abstract
Brain imaging studies reliably localize a region of visual cortex that is especially responsive to visual words. This brain specialization is essential to rapid reading ability because it enhances perception of words by becoming specifically tuned to recurring properties of a writing system. The origin of this specialization poses a challenge for evolutionary accounts involving innate mechanisms for functional brain organization. We propose an alternative account, based on studies of other forms of visual expertise (i.e. bird and car experts) that lead to functional reorganization. We argue that the interplay between the unique demands of word reading and the structural constraints of the visual system lead to the emergence of the Visual Word Form Area.
Overview
AI snapshot
Written from the paper’s full text.
TL;DR
The paper reviews evidence that a left fusiform region, the Visual Word Form Area (VWFA), is reliably activated by visual words and shows abstract, prelexical tuning to orthographic structure. It proposes that this specialization arises through reading-driven perceptual expertise rather than an innate word-recognition module.
Key findings
- The VWFA localizes to the left occipitotemporal sulcus bordering the fusiform gyrus, with a group peak at approximately x = −43, y = −54, z = −12 mm; this peak is found in over 90% of individual subject scans, with a standard deviation of <5 mm.
- The region responds to visual words and pseudowords more than control stimuli, shows case/font/size and left–right visual-field invariance, is activated even without awareness, and is sensitive to orthographic regularity but generally not to lexical frequency or real-versus-pseudoword contrasts.
- The authors argue the VWFA is a case of perceptual expertise: writing is only ~5400 years old, too recent for dedicated evolutionary selection, and VWFA activity correlates with grapheme–phoneme decoding ability even when age is controlled.
- Neuropsychological evidence links pure alexia and left-visual-field word-reading deficits to damage or disconnection around the VWFA; adults with developmental dyslexia show reduced VWFA activation to words and pseudowords.
Methods
- Review and synthesis of prior neuroimaging studies (fMRI, PET, ERP, MEG, intracranial recordings), neuropsychological lesion evidence, developmental studies, and visual-expertise research; no new empirical data are presented.
- Localization claims draw on reviews of over 25 group experiments; developmental evidence includes children aged 7–18 years and behavioral/ERP studies in first-graders and older children.
- Main analysis is qualitative convergence across experimental contrasts and populations, leading to a proposed functional-anatomical model of visual word reading.
Limitations
- The paper does not include a formal limitations section. It states caveats: the term VWFA need not imply sole dedication to word recognition, object and face recognition can also activate this region, other regions can be modulated by visual word forms, and projections from the VWFA to lexical, semantic, and phonological systems are less clearly defined.
- Evident from the text: this is a review rather than a new experiment, some cited findings are “in press,” and the functional-anatomical model is described as tentative.
Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.
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Claims the paper makes
53 Not checked yet · 24 Own interpretation · 1 Supported so far
The sources with a verdict support this claim; the rest weren’t checked yet, have no full text we could read, or their verdicts aren’t rated yet.
In the paper
“Case invariance holds even for upper and lowercase letters that share no visual similarity but are related only by arbitrary cultural convention (e.g. a and A, g and G) [22,23].”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [22] McCandliss, 2000, Habituating cognitive codes for individual words within the visual word form area: an event related fMRI study, J. Cogn. Neurosci. Suppl.
- Supportedcites [23] Dehaene, S. et al. (2003) Letter binding and invariant recognition of masked words: behavioral and neuroimaging evidence. Psychol. Sci. (in press). source
The ‘Behavioral and neuroimaging evidence’ section describes A and a as having radically different shapes and an essentially arbitrary correspondence. The Results report significant cross-case priming for words made of visually dissimilar letters, supporting case-invariant recognition despite that difference. (LLM, conf=0.94)
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The origin of this specialization poses a challenge for evolutionary accounts involving innate mechanisms for functional brain organization.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: unclear — It is unclear whether it could be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: unclear — It is unclear why the paper says it holds.
- Rests on an assumption: Writing was invented about 5400 years ago.
- Rests on an assumption: 5400 years is insufficient time for selective pressures to engineer a specialized module for visual word recognition.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We argue that the interplay between the unique demands of word reading and the structural constraints of the visual system lead to the emergence of the Visual Word Form Area.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Several lines of cognitive evidence indicate that the perceptual mechanisms that support word recognition rest on a critical process that groups the letters of a word together into an integrated perceptual unit (i.e. a 'visual word form').”
What the sources say
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Brain imaging studies reliably localize a region of visual cortex that is especially responsive to visual words.”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [8] Cohen, 2002, Language-specific tuning of visual cortex? Functional properties of the visual word form area, Brain source
- Not checked yetcites [9] Cohen, 2000, The visual word form area: spatial and temporal characterization of an initial stage of reading in normal subjects and posterior split-brain patients, Brain source
- Not checked yetcites [10] Polk, 2002, Functional MRI evidence for an abstract, not perceptual, word-form area, J. Exp. Psychol. Gen. source
- Not checked yetcites [11] Dehaene, 2002, The visual word form area: a prelexical representation of visual words in the fusiform gyrus, Neuroreport source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
In the paper
“Within less than 250 ms of viewing a written word, the visual system extracts the information needed to identify its linguistic significance, despite wide variations in print, script, font, size and retinal position.”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [1] Rayner, 1989
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
In the paper
“Literate adults possess a special form of visual expertise that allows their visual system to process words efficiently.”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [1] Rayner, 1989
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This brain specialization is essential to rapid reading ability because it enhances perception of words by becoming specifically tuned to recurring properties of a writing system.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: unclear — It is unclear why the paper says it holds.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“The response properties of the VWFA demonstrate a form of tuning to learned letter stimuli, which produce greater activity than well-controlled pseudoletters, that can be measured by blocks of PET data [19], as well by the first 200 ms of activity in MEG and intracranial electrical recordings [16].”
What the sources say
boostedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Nevertheless, we argue that this region of the visual system must contain a population of neurons that, as an ensemble, is tuned to invariant stimulus properties and structural regularities characteristic of written words.”
boostedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- It may state two separate claims as one. 16
- Probably not a substantial claim. 6
In the paper
“Chronometric studies show that the speed of word recognition is remarkably uninfluenced by the number of letters present in a 3-6-letter word, indicating a form of parallel processing of the letters [2].”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [2] Nazir, 1998, Letter legibility and visual word recognition, Mem. Cogn. source
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Finally, converging neuropsychological evidence indicates that selective damage to the left fusiform region impairs visual but not auditory word recognition (Box 1).”
What the sources say
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“This finding is robust enough to identify a significant peak of activation in over 90% of individual subject scans, with a standard deviation of , 5 mm [8-11] (Fig. 1).”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [8] Cohen, 2002, Language-specific tuning of visual cortex? Functional properties of the visual word form area, Brain source
- Not checked yetcites [9] Cohen, 2000, The visual word form area: spatial and temporal characterization of an initial stage of reading in normal subjects and posterior split-brain patients, Brain source
- Not checked yetcites [10] Polk, 2002, Functional MRI evidence for an abstract, not perceptual, word-form area, J. Exp. Psychol. Gen. source
- Not checked yetcites [11] Dehaene, 2002, The visual word form area: a prelexical representation of visual words in the fusiform gyrus, Neuroreport source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“This process is highly sensitive to the abstract structural properties of the writing system, but largely insensitive to non-essential variations in visual features such as case and font [1].”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [1] Rayner, 1989
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Finally, these perceptual operations adapt well to large variations in surface features of word stimuli, such as changes in size, case, and font, and demonstrate significant transfer of priming benefits across such variations [1].”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [1] Rayner, 1989
boostedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“IT neurons have vast receptive fields and respond selectively to certain objects or parts of objects across large changes in size, position and illumination [39,40].”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [39] Tanaka, 2003, Columns for complex visual object features in inferotemporal cortex: clustering of cells with similar but slightly different stimulus selectivities, Cereb. Cortex source
- Not checked yetcites [40] Einhauser, 2002, Learning the invariance properties of complex cells from their responses to natural stimuli, Eur. J. Neurosci. source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“For example, inferotemporal (IT) cortex is well known for its role in invariant object recognition.”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [39] Tanaka, 2003, Columns for complex visual object features in inferotemporal cortex: clustering of cells with similar but slightly different stimulus selectivities, Cereb. Cortex source
- Not checked yetcites [40] Einhauser, 2002, Learning the invariance properties of complex cells from their responses to natural stimuli, Eur. J. Neurosci. source
boostedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The hypothesis of a progressive specialization of the left VWFA over the course of reading acquisition avoids problems inherent to the notion of a ready-made 'word recognition module'.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
- Rests on an assumption: Writing was invented about 5400 years ago.
- Rests on an assumption: 5400 years is insufficient time for selective pressures to engineer a specialized module for visual word recognition.
In the paper
“Although enhanced abilities to perceive well-structured letter strings appear early in the reading process, such effects are restricted to high-frequency words and do not generalize to novel strings until 10-13 years of age [4] (although see [35]).”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [4] Gibson, 1962, The role of grapheme–phoneme correspondence in the perception of words, Am. J. Psychol. source
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Sensitivity to increasingly larger visual units varies along a posterior-toanterior gradient, whereas sensitivity to increasingly eccentric sectors of the retina varies along a lateral-tomesialgradient.”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [43] Malach, 2002, The topography of high-order human object areas, Trends Cogn. Sci. source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Much of the ventral processing stream is already well adapted to the invariant recognition of fine basic shapes in the fovea.”
boosted- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
In the paper
“Unlike adults, 6- to 7-year-old children (American first-graders) demonstrate robust word-length effects, which gradually diminish over the following years but are still detectable as late as grade 5 (11-12 years old) [34].”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [34] Aghababian, 2000, Developing normal reading skills: aspects of the visual processes underlying word recognition, J. Exp. Child Psychol. source
boostedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“In contrast to global alexia, PA patients are able to identify single letters, and develop letter-by-letter reading strategies resulting in reading latencies that increase by hundreds of milliseconds for each additional letter [49].”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [49] Cohen, L. et al. (2003) Visual word recognition in the left and right hemispheres: anatomical and functional correlates of peripheral alexias. Cereb. Cortex (in press). source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Developmental studies of the N200 ERP responses to letter strings demonstrate a similar pattern, suggesting that 10-year-olds produce adult-like responses to highfrequency words but fail to generalize such responses to pseudowords [21].”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [21] Posner, 1999, Brain circuitry during reading
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Such differences have not yet been associated with neuropathology in this region, but mayinstead reflect the absence of a specialization that accrues over the course of years of successful reading experience [55].”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [55] McCandliss, B.D. and Noble, K. (2003) The development of reading impairment: a cognitive neuroscience model. Mental Retard. Dev. Disab. Res. Rev. (in press). source
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This view on the origin of the VWFA implies that the specialization process should be protracted over a long period of experience and that the response properties of the VWFA should evolve in parallel with the rise of cognitive hallmarks of expertise.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Although the precise projections from VWFA to systems involved in lexical, semantic and phonological processes are currently less clearly defined, functional areas probably include the left angular gyrus [52], left inferior frontal cortex [53], and temporal regions anterior to the VWFA [54].”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [52] Horwitz, 1998, Functional connectivity of the angular gyrus in normal reading and dyslexia, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. source
- Not checked yetcites [53] Bokde, 2001, Functional interactions of the inferior frontal cortex during the processing of words and word-like stimuli, Neuron source
- Not checked yetcites [54] Giraud, 2001, The constraints functional neuroanatomy places on classical models of auditory word processing, J. Cogn. Neurosci. source
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Separate pathways in left and right hemispheres are integrated in the left lateralized Visual Word Form Area (VWFA), which mediates between visually specific input, and moreabstract linguistic areas responsible for lexical, semantic and phonological processes.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: unclear — It is unclear why the paper says it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Finally, ventral visual regions receive top-down attentional influences associated with left and right parietal regions that are likely to affect all processing levels, and whose impairment might therefore lead to various forms of neglect dyslexia.”
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper relies on this without support.
Writing was invented about 5400 years ago.
“given that the cultural invention of writing upon which this specialization is predicated did not exist until , 5400 years ago”
The paper relies on this without support.
5400 years is insufficient time for selective pressures to engineer a specialized module for visual word recognition.
“which is insufficient time for selective pressures to engineer a specialized 'module' for visual word recognition.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The VWFA is left lateralized in most subjects.
“Although the VWFA is left lateralized in most subjects”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“we used NeuroSynth to replicate previous findings of visual category-specific activation in regions such as the fusiform face area (FFA12) and visual word form area (VWFA13”
From Large-scale automated synthesis of human functional neuroimaging data. (2011) · cites this paper as [13]
In the citing paper
“Interestingly, the region of posterior temporal cortex more active for the letter than category fluency conditions overlaps with an area implicated by previous studies as being involved in the visual processing of word forms (i.e., the visual word form areas, VWFA; McCandliss et al., 2003), as well as with other word processing sites that appears to have a multimodal function; i.e., for combining”
From Neural systems supporting lexical search guided by letter and semantic category cues: a self-paced overt response fMRI study of verbal fluency (2010) · cites this paper as McCandliss et al., 2003
In the citing paper
“This cortex is partially plastic and can, during ontogenesis, become progressively attuned to the requirements of reading (McCandliss et al., 2003).”
From Specialization within the ventral stream: the case for the visual word form area (2004) · cites this paper as McCandliss et al., 2003
In the citing paper
“Finally, it should be remembered that it takes years for children to develop expert word recognition (Aghababian and Nazir, 2000), and that the emergence of this expertise correlates with the amount of activation of the VWFA by letter strings in normal and dyslexic children (McCandliss et al., 2003; Shaywitz et al., 2002; Temple, 2002).”
From Specialization within the ventral stream: the case for the visual word form area (2004) · cites this paper as McCandliss et al., 2003
In the citing paper
“The left-FFG was found to be involved in letter identification and reading (McCandliss et al., 2003; Dehaene and Cohen, 2011; McNorgan et al., 2013).”
From Functional neuroimaging of visuospatial working memory tasks enables accurate detection of attention deficit and hyperactivity disorder (2015) · cites this paper as McCandliss et al., 2003
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
§ The perceptual expertise account · p. 4
“Subjects were engaged in a semantic classification task on target words and were not unaware of the presence of primes.”
§ The perceptual expertise account · p. 4
“This suggests that this area holds a case-invariant neural code for visual words and that this code can be activated automatically without awareness.”
Citations
Cites
The distributed human neural system for face perception
Haxby, J. V., Hoffman, E. A., & Gobbini, M. I. (2000) · Trends in Cognitive Sciences · doi:10.1016/s1364-6613(00)01482-0 · Cited by 4,891
Cohen, L., Dehaene, S., Naccache, L., Lehéricy, S., Dehaene-Lambertz, G., Hénaff, M.-A., & Michel, F. (2000) · Brain · doi:10.1093/brain/123.2.291 · Cited by 1,954
Self-citationExpertise for cars and birds recruits brain areas involved in face recognition
Gauthier, I., Skudlarski, P., Gore, J. C., & Anderson, A. W. (2000) · Nature Neuroscience · doi:10.1038/72140 · Cited by 1,418 · cited 1×
“These processing benefits are linked to functional reorganizations in the response properties of a region of the right fusiform gyrus [ 32 ], which are also associated with changes in the response properties of ERPs recorded within the first 200 ms of processing stimuli [33].”
BackgroundCerebral mechanisms of word masking and unconscious repetition priming
Dehaene, S., Naccache, L., Cohen, L., Bihan, D. L., Mangin, J.-F., Poline, J.-B., & Rivière, D. (2001) · Nature Neuroscience · doi:10.1038/89551 · Cited by 1,305
Self-citationLanguage‐specific tuning of visual cortex? Functional properties of the Visual Word Form Area
Cohen, L., Lehéricy, S., Chochon, F., Lemer, C., Rivaud, S., & Dehaene, S. (2002) · Brain · doi:10.1093/brain/awf094 · Cited by 1,254 · cited 4×
“pseudowords), produce more robust fMRI responses than novel but poorly structured letter strings [ 8 ].”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialSelf-citationPerceptual recognition as a function of meaningfulness of stimulus material
Reicher, G. M. (1969) · Journal of Experimental Psychology · doi:10.1037/h0027768 · Cited by 1,252
Dyslexia: Cultural Diversity and Biological Unity
Paulesu, E., Démonet, J.-F., Fazio, F., McCrory, E., Chanoine, V., Brunswick, N., Cappa, S. F., Cossu, G., Habib, M., Frith, C. D., et al. (2001) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.1057179 · Cited by 1,173
Disruption of posterior brain systems for reading in children with developmental dyslexia
Shaywitz, B. A., Shaywitz, S. E., Pugh, K. R., Mencl, W. E., Fulbright, R. K., Skudlarski, P., Constable, R. T., Marchione, K. E., Fletcher, J. M., Lyon, G. R., et al. (2002) · Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/s0006-3223(02)01365-3 · Cited by 993
Functional disruption in the organization of the brain for reading in dyslexia
Shaywitz, S. E., Shaywitz, B. A., Pugh, K. R., Fulbright, R. K., Constable, R. T., Mencl, W. E., Shankweiler, D. P., Liberman, A. M., Skudlarski, P., Fletcher, J. M., et al. (1998) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.95.5.2636 · Cited by 872
Temple, E., Deutsch, G. K., Poldrack, R. A., Miller, S. L., Tallal, P., Merzenich, M. M., & Gabrieli, J. D. E. (2003) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.0030098100 · Cited by 796
Research works printed but not linked: 1
- McCandliss, 2000, Habituating cognitive codes for individual words within the visual word form area: an event related fMRI study, J. Cogn. Neurosci. Suppl., 118
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Goldstone, R. L., Pestilli, F., & Börner, K. (2015) · Trends in Cognitive Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.tics.2015.05.012 · Cited by 23
Savill, N. J., & Thierry, G. (2012) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2012.03.008 · Cited by 28
Ventura, P., Fernandes, T., Leite, I., Almeida, V. B., Casqueiro, I., & Wong, A. C. ‐. (2017) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01036 · Cited by 23
Narrative Discourse in Young and Older Adults: Behavioral and NIRS Analyses
Martin, C.-O., Pontbriand‐Drolet, S., Daoust, V., Yamga, E., Amiri, M., Hübner, L. C., & Ska, B. (2018) · Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnagi.2018.00069 · Cited by 25
Cortical regions supporting reading comprehension skill for single words and discourse
Ryherd, K., Jasińska, K. K., Dyke, J. A. V., Hung, Y.-H., Baron, E., Mencl, W. E., Zevin, J. D., & Landi, N. (2018) · Brain and Language · doi:10.1016/j.bandl.2018.08.001 · Cited by 23
The VWFA Is the Home of Orthographic Learning When Houses Are Used as Letters
Martin, L. M., Durisko, C., Moore, M. W., Coutanche, M. N., Chen, D., & Fiez, J. A. (2019) · eNeuro · doi:10.1523/eneuro.0425-17.2019 · Cited by 23
Demystifying visual word form area visual and nonvisual response properties with precision fMRI
Li, J., Hiersche, K., & Saygin, Z. (2024) · iScience · doi:10.1016/j.isci.2024.111481 · Cited by 19
Kocoń, J., & Maziarz, M. (2021) · Information Processing & Management · doi:10.1016/j.ipm.2021.102530 · Cited by 22
Is Developmental Dyslexia Due to a Visual and Not a Phonological Impairment?
Werth, R. (2021) · Brain Sciences · doi:10.3390/brainsci11101313 · Cited by 22
Liu, T., de Schotten, M. T., Altarelli, I., Ramus, F., & Zhao, J. (2021) · Cortex · doi:10.1016/j.cortex.2021.07.016 · Cited by 22
How Learning to Read Changes the Listening Brain
Romanovska, L., & Bonte, M. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.726882 · Cited by 28
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Age, Sex, and Verbal Abilities Affect Location of Linguistic Connectivity in Ventral Visual Pathway
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SD-squared revisited: Reply to Coltheart, Tree, and Saunders (2010).
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Dynamic spatial organization of the occipito-temporal word form area for second language processing
Gao, Y., Sun, Y., Lu, C., Ding, G., Guo, T., Malins, J. G., Booth, J. R., Peng, D., & Liu, L. (2017) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2017.06.007 · Cited by 22
Pattern of neural divergence in adults with prelingual deafness: Based on structural brain analysis
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Holistic word processing is correlated with efficiency in visual word recognition
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How Does the Brain Read Words?
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Chahboun, S., Kvello, Ø., & Page, A. G. (2021) · Frontiers in Communication · doi:10.3389/fcomm.2021.661528 · Cited by 21
Visual event-related potentials reveal the early lexical processing of Chinese characters
Ruifeng, Y., Chen, J., Peng, Y., & Gu, F. (2021) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2021.108132 · Cited by 22
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The effects of bilateral posterior parietal cortex tRNS on reading performance.
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Intact reading in patients with profound early visual dysfunction
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Bayesian model selection of template forward models for EEG source reconstruction
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Neural correlates of top-down letter processing
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Magnetoencephalography and Language
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Chen, F., Ju, Y., Zhao, X., Li, Q., & Dong, L. R. (2023) · Transportation Research Part F Traffic Psychology and Behaviour · doi:10.1016/j.trf.2023.04.009 · Cited by 20
Rapp, B. C., Caplan, D. N., Edwards, S., Visch-Brink, E. G., & Thompson, C. K. (2012) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2012.09.007 · Cited by 20
Dai, R., Chen, H.-C., Chan, Y.-C., Wu, C.-L., Li, P., Shu, C. L., & Hu, J.-F. (2017) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00498 · Cited by 17
Hoffman, P., Cox, S. R., Dykiert, D., Maniega, S. M., Hernández, M. C. V., Bastin, M. E., Wardlaw, J. M., & Deary, I. J. (2017) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2017.05.052 · Cited by 20
Shared Processing of Language and Music
Atherton, R. P., Chrobak, Q. M., Rauscher, F. H., Karst, A. T., Hanson, M. D., Steinert, S. W., & Bowe, K. L. (2018) · Experimental Psychology (formerly Zeitschrift für Experimentelle Psychologie) · doi:10.1027/1618-3169/a000388 · Cited by 20
Early Brain Sensitivity to Word Frequency and Lexicality During Reading Aloud and Implicit Reading
Faísca, L., Reis, A., & Araújo, S. (2019) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00830 · Cited by 20
Impact of Learning to Read in a Mixed Approach on Neural Tuning to Words in Beginning Readers
de Ghelcke, A. V. D. W., Rossion, B., Schiltz, C., & Lochy, A. (2020) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2019.03043 · Cited by 20
Qu, H., Tang, H., Pan, J., Zhao, Y., & Wang, W. J. (2020) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2020.565445 · Cited by 20
Reading-related functional activity in children with isolated spelling deficits and dyslexia
Banfi, C., Koschutnig, K., Moll, K., Schulte-Körne, G., Fink, A., & Landerl, K. (2020) · Language, Cognition and Neuroscience · doi:10.1080/23273798.2020.1859569 · Cited by 27
Faces and words are both associated and dissociated as evidenced by visual problems in dyslexia
Sigurdardottir, H. M., Arnardóttir, A., & Halldórsdóttir, E. Þ. (2021) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-021-02440-7 · Cited by 20
Neurobiología y neurogenética de la dislexia
Benítez‐Burraco, A. (2010) · Neurología · doi:10.1016/j.nrl.2009.12.010 · Cited by 22
Electrophysiological correlates of perceptual prediction error are attenuated in dyslexia
Beach, S. D., Lim, S.-J., Cardenas-Iniguez, C., Eddy, M. D., Gabrieli, J. D. E., & Perrachione, T. K. (2022) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2021.108091 · Cited by 19
Neural Bases of Speech Perception – Phonology, Streams, and Auditory Word Forms
Scott, S. K. (2012) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9781139029377.003 · Cited by 19
Hsu, C.-H., Liina Pylkkänen, A., & Lee, C. (2018) · Journal of Neurolinguistics · doi:10.1016/j.jneuroling.2018.06.004 · Cited by 19
Playing “Duck Duck Goose” With Neurons
Tian, X., & Huber, D. E. (2013) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/0956797612459765 · Cited by 19
Lithari, C. D., Moratti, S., & Weisz, N. (2016) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/srep29220 · Cited by 20
Perfetti, C. A., Nelson, J. R., Liu, Y., Fiez, J. A., & Tan, L. (2010) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195300369.003.0006 · Cited by 19
Changes in brain activation during sedation induced by dexmedetomidine
Kim, W. H., Cho, D., Lee, B., Song, J., & Shin, T. J. (2017) · Journal of International Medical Research · doi:10.1177/0300060517705477 · Cited by 19
Ma, Q., Zeng, L., Qin, J., Luo, Z., Su, J., Wu, D., Qiu, S., & Hu, D. (2017) · Neuroreport · doi:10.1097/wnr.0000000000000813 · Cited by 19
Interhemispheric connectivity during lateralized lexical decision
Chu, R., & Meltzer, J. A. (2018) · Human Brain Mapping · doi:10.1002/hbm.24414 · Cited by 21
Sigurdardottir, H. M., Hjartarson, K. H., Gudmundsson, G. L., & Kristjansson, A. K. (2019) · Vision Research · doi:10.1016/j.visres.2019.02.010 · Cited by 19
Improving the reliability and validity of the IAT with a dynamic model driven by similarity
Kvam, P. D., Irving, L. H., Sokratous, K., & Smith, C. T. (2023) · Behavior Research Methods · doi:10.3758/s13428-023-02141-1 · Cited by 21
Fan, Q., Anderson, A. W., Davis, N., & Cutting, L. E. (2014) · Brain Research · doi:10.1016/j.brainres.2014.08.050 · Cited by 19
The mechanism of word crowding
Yu, D., Akau, M., & Chung, S. T. L. (2011) · Vision Research · doi:10.1016/j.visres.2011.10.015 · Cited by 19
Neural Mechanisms of Rapid Sensitivity to Syntactic Anomaly
Kim, A. E., & Gilley, P. M. (2013) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00045 · Cited by 19
Using Brain Imaging to Extract the Structure of Complex Events at the Rational Time Band
Anderson, J. R., & Qin, Y. (2008) · Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1162/jocn.2008.20108 · Cited by 19
Brain Structure Correlates of Component Reading Processes: Implications for Reading Disability
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Atypical White Matter Connectivity in Dyslexic Readers of a Fairly Transparent Orthography
Žarić, G., Timmers, I., Gerretsen, P., González, G. F., Tijms, J., van der Molen, M. W., Blomert, L., & Bonte, M. L. (2018) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01147 · Cited by 18
The Evolved Mind and Modern Education
Geary, D. C. (2024) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781009454858 · Cited by 19
Xu, G., Jiang, Y., Ma, L., Yang, Z., & Weng, X. (2012) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2012.01.026 · Cited by 18
The Relation Between Alphabetic Basics, Word Recognition, and Reading
Adams, M. J. (2011) · International Reading Association eBooks · doi:10.1598/0829.01 · Cited by 18
Jiang, X., Petok, J. R., Howard, D. V., & Howard, J. H. (2017) · Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnagi.2017.00103 · Cited by 18
Neural representation of an alphasyllabary - the story of Devanagari
Das, T., Kumar, U., Bapi, R. S., Padakannaya, P., & Singh, N. C. (2009) · MyPrints@UOM (Mysore University Library) · Cited by 18
Temporal course of word recognition in skilled readers: A magnetoencephalography study
Simos, P. G., Pugh, K. R., Mencl, E., Frost, S. J., FLETCHER, J., Sarkari, S., & Papanicolaou, A. C. (2008) · Behavioural Brain Research · doi:10.1016/j.bbr.2008.07.038 · Cited by 18
Representation of visual symbols in the visual word processing network
Muayqil, T. A., Davies-Thompson, J., & Barton, J. J. S. (2015) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2015.01.045 · Cited by 18
Devil in the details? Developmental dyslexia and visual long-term memory for details
Huestegge, L., Rohrßen, J., van Ermingen‐Marbach, M., Pape‐Neumann, J., & Heim, S. (2014) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00686 · Cited by 20
Hsiao, J. H., & Liu, T. (2010) · Cognitive Affective & Behavioral Neuroscience · doi:10.3758/cabn.10.4.552 · Cited by 18
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Functional MRI evidence for the importance of visual short‐term memory in logographic reading
Koyama, M. S., Stein, J. F., Stoodley, C. J., & Hansen, P. (2010) · European Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1111/j.1460-9568.2010.07534.x · Cited by 17
The development of abstract letter representations for reading: Evidence for the role of context
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Task-specific preparatory neural activations in low-interference contexts
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Early lexical processing of Chinese words indexed by Visual Mismatch Negativity effects
Wei, D., Dowens, M. G., & Guo, T. (2018) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-018-19394-y · Cited by 17
White spaces, music notation and the facilitation of sight-reading
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Robust and Task-Independent Spatial Profile of the Visual Word Form Activation in Fusiform Cortex
Ma, L., Jiang, Y., Bai, J., Gong, Q., Liu, H., Chen, H.-C., He, S., & Weng, X. (2011) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0026310 · Cited by 17
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Role of left superior temporal gyrus during name recall process: An event-related fMRI study
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Change in Subtle N170 Specialization in Response to Chinese Characters and Pseudocharacters
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Metadata
- Authors
- McCandliss, B. D., Cohen, L., & Dehaene, S.
- Affiliations
- Cornell University (US)
- Inserm (FR)
- Corresponding author
- McCandliss, Bruce D.
- Venue
- Trends in Cognitive Sciences
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2003-07
- Volume
- 7
- Issue
- 7
- Pages
- 293-299
- ISSN
- 1364-6613 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2143709903
- Semantic Scholar
- efc50447601a00424b368385d84c969f5e00395f
- Cited by
- 1,489
- References
- 55
- Citations by year
- 2026: 41 · 2025: 43 · 2024: 63 · 2023: 56 · 2022: 52 · 2021: 69 · 2020: 84 · 2019: 84 · 2018: 65 · 2017: 61 · 2016: 71 · 2015: 79 · 2014: 85 · 2013: 66 · 2012: 78
- FWCI
- 8.67
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Trends in Cognitive Sciences (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Reading and Literacy Development
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neurobiology of Language and Bilingualism
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Visual perception and processing mechanisms
- Keywords
- visual word form area, fusiform gyrus, reading, visual word recognition, visual expertise, functional reorganization, brain specialization, writing systems, visual cortex
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
A language model drew the claims from the paper on 2026-10-08, under version 3 of the claim definition (model deepseek-v4.1-flash, prompt extract-v3).
A second model labelled each claim on 2026-10-08 (model jev-1.13-20260917, definition revision gold-guideline-v0.2).
Cited sources are checked with a language model’s help (gpt-6-sol).
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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