Global distributions, source-type dependencies, and concentration ranges of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances in groundwater
Open accessAbstract
A meta-analysis was conducted of published literature reporting concentrations of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) in groundwater for sites distributed in 21 countries across the globe. Data for more than 35 PFAS were aggregated from 96 reports published from 1999 to 2021. The final data set comprised approximately 21,000 data points after removal of time-series and duplicate samples as well as non-detects. The reported concentrations ranged over many orders of magnitude, from ng/L to mg/L levels. Distinct differences in concentration ranges were observed between sites located within or near sources versus those that are not. Perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA), ranging from <0.03 ng/L to ~7 mg/L, and perfluorooctanesulfonic acid (PFOS), ranging from 0.01 ng/L to ~5 mg/L, were the two most reported PFAS. The highest PFAS concentration in groundwater was ~15 mg/L reported for the replacement-PFAS 6:2 fluorotelomer sulfonate (6:2 FTS). Maximum reported groundwater concentrations for PFOA and PFOS were compared to concentrations reported for soils, surface waters, marine waters, and precipitation. Soil concentrations are generally significantly higher than those reported for the other media. This accrues to soil being the primary entry point for PFAS release into the environment for many sites, as well as the generally significantly greater retention capacity of soil compared to the other media. The presence of PFAS has been reported for all media in all regions tested including areas that are far removed from specific PFAS sources. This gives rise to the existence of a “background” concentration of PFAS that must be accounted for in both regional and site-specific risk assessments. The presence of this background is a reflection of the large-scale use of PFAS, their general recalcitrance, and the action of long-range transport processes that distribute PFAS across regional and global scales. This ubiquitous distribution has the potential to significantly impact the quality and availability of water resources in many regions. In addition, the pervasive presence of PFAS in the environment engenders concerns for impacts to ecosystem and human health.
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Claims the paper makes
0 of 17 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged
- Findingown data
No-known-source median concentrations are several orders of magnitude lower than primary-source sites.
“These concentrations are several orders-of-magnitude lower than those for the primary source sites.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Reported PFAS concentrations in groundwater spanned from ng/L to mg/L levels.
“The reported concentrations ranged over many orders of magnitude, from ng/L to mg/L levels.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Approximately 40% of groundwater data are from primary-source sites.
“Approximately 40% of the data are reported for sites classified as primary-source sites (Table 2).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingnone given
Highest concentrations for no-known-source sites are generally associated with metropolitan areas.
“The highest concentrations reported for the no-known-source sites are generally associated with metropolitan areas.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
The highest PFAS concentration in groundwater was ~15 mg/L for 6:2 FTS.
“The highest PFAS concentration in groundwater was ~15 mg/L reported for the replacement-PFAS 6:2 fluorotelomer sulfonate (6:2 FTS).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
- Findingown data
Median maximum groundwater PFOA concentration for secondary-source sites is 96 ng/L.
“The median of the maximum concentrations reported for secondary-source sites are 95 and 96 ng/L for PFOS and PFOA, respectively.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingnone given
Maximum surface water PFOA concentrations for source sites range from ~8.8 ng/L to ~0.6 mg/L, median 569 ng/L.
“The maximum PFOA concentrations range from approximately 8.8 ng/L to ~0.6 mg/L, with a median of 569 ng/L.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
Surface water concentrations exhibit skewed distribution for source sites, with one or two sites comprising highest concentrations.
“The concentrations are observed to exhibit a skewed distribution for the source sites, with one or two sites comprising the highest reported concentrations.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
Data from no-known-source sites comprise approximately 29% of the total.
“Data reported for no-known-source sites comprise approximately 29% of the total.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
Weighted mean PFOA concentration at primary-source sites is 64,000 (±29,000) ng/L.
“The weighted mean concentrations of PFOA and PFOS at primary source sites are 64,000 (±29000) ng/L and 93,000 (±27000) ng/L, respectively.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Median maximum PFOS for source sites is only factor of two larger than no-known-source.
“Notably, the median of the maximum PFOS concentrations for the source sites is only a factor of two larger than the median of the maximum concentration for the no-known-source sites.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingnone given
Highest reported groundwater concentrations are associated with AFFF application sites.
“The highest reported concentrations are associated with aqueous film-forming foams (AFFF) application sites.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingcitation
Characterized groundwater contaminant plume lengths associated with single sources range from ~0.5 to >5 km.
“The characterized plume lengths range from approximately 0.5 to >5 km.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
Weighted mean PFOS concentration at secondary-source sites is 42 (±24) ng/L.
“and 42 (±24) ng/L and 46 (±48) ng/L, respectively, for PFOS.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
PFOS was reported in groundwater at concentrations from 0.01 ng/L to ~5 mg/L.
“perfluorooctanesulfonic acid (PFOS), ranging from 0.01 ng/L to ~5 mg/L”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingreasoning
Soil concentrations of PFAS are generally significantly higher than those in surface water, marine water, precipitation, and groundwater.
“Soil concentrations are generally significantly higher than those reported for the other media.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingreasoning
PFAS have been reported in all media in all regions tested, including areas far from specific PFAS sources.
“The presence of PFAS has been reported for all media in all regions tested including areas that are far removed from specific PFAS sources.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Arithmetic mean PFOA concentration for all groundwater sites is 15,000 (±12,000) ng/L.
“The arithmetic mean concentrations for all sites for PFOA and PFOS, the two most reported PFAS in groundwater, are 15,000 (±12000) ng/L and 21,000 (±11000) ng/L, respectively (Table 3).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Maximum groundwater concentrations range up to 6.6 mg/L for PFOA.
“The maximum concentrations range up to 9.7 (9.7×106 ng/L) and 6.6 mg/L (6.6×106 ng/L) for PFOS and PFOA, respectively.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
Groundwater concentration ranges differed distinctly between sites within or near sources and sites not near sources.
“Distinct differences in concentration ranges were observed between sites located within or near sources versus those that are not.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
PFOA was reported in groundwater at concentrations from <0.03 ng/L to ~7 mg/L.
“Perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA), ranging from <0.03 ng/L to ~7 mg/L”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
The final groundwater data set contained approximately 21,000 data points after removing time-series, duplicate samples, and non-detects.
“The final data set comprised approximately 21,000 data points after removal of time-series and duplicate samples as well as non-detects.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Weighted mean PFOS concentration at primary-source sites is 93,000 (±27,000) ng/L.
“The weighted mean concentrations of PFOA and PFOS at primary source sites are 64,000 (±29000) ng/L and 93,000 (±27000) ng/L, respectively.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Weighted mean PFOS concentration at no-known-source sites is 46 (±48) ng/L.
“and 42 (±24) ng/L and 46 (±48) ng/L, respectively, for PFOS.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingnone given
Maximum surface water PFOS concentrations for source sites range from 2.5 ng/L to 0.3 mg/L, median 22 ng/L.
“The maximum PFOS concentrations range from 2.5 ng/L to 0.3 mg/L, with a median of 22 ng/L.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
Maximum surface water PFOS concentrations for no-known-source sites range from ~0.3 to ~350 ng/L, median 10 ng/L.
“The maximum PFOS concentrations range from approximately 0.3 ng/L to ~350 ng/L, with a median of 10 ng/L.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
Concentrations at secondary-source and no-known-source sites are several orders of magnitude lower than at primary-source sites for all reported PFAS except longer-chain C11-C18 PFAS.
“The concentrations reported for these latter two source types are several orders of magnitude lower than those reported for primary-source sites. This disparity is observed for all reported PFAS with the exception of the longer-chain C11 – C18 PFAS.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Median maximum groundwater PFOS concentration for no-known-source sites is ~30 ng/L.
“The median values of the maximum groundwater concentrations reported for the no-known-source sites are approximately 30 and 15 ng/L for PFOS and PFOA, respectively.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
Maximum groundwater concentrations range up to 9.7 mg/L for PFOS.
“The maximum concentrations range up to 9.7 (9.7×106 ng/L) and 6.6 mg/L (6.6×106 ng/L) for PFOS and PFOA, respectively.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
Median maximum groundwater PFOS concentration for primary-source sites is ~45,700 ng/L.
“The median values of the maximum groundwater concentrations reported for primary-source sites are approximately 45,700 and 7,400 ng/L for PFOS and PFOA, respectively.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Median maximum groundwater PFOS concentration for secondary-source sites is 95 ng/L.
“The median of the maximum concentrations reported for secondary-source sites are 95 and 96 ng/L for PFOS and PFOA, respectively.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Weighted mean PFOA concentration at no-known-source sites is 13 (±5) ng/L.
“The weighted means for secondary-source sites and no-known source sites are 325 (±320) ng/L and 13 (±5) ng/L, respectively, for PFOA”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
For no-known-source surface water sites, median PFOS and PFOA values are in similar range.
“In contrast to the source sites, the median values are in a similar range for PFOS and PFOA for the no-known-source sites.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingnone given
PFAS production and manufacturing facilities comprise nearly one-third of primary-source sites.
“PFAS production and manufacturing facilities comprise nearly one-third of the primary-source sites.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
Maximum surface water PFOA concentrations for no-known-source sites range from 0.4 to ~1,000 ng/L, median 17 ng/L.
“The maximum PFOA concentrations range from 0.4 ng/L to ~1,000 ng/L, with a median of 17 ng/L.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
Median maximum groundwater PFOA concentration for no-known-source sites is ~15 ng/L.
“The median values of the maximum groundwater concentrations reported for the no-known-source sites are approximately 30 and 15 ng/L for PFOS and PFOA, respectively.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingreasoning
Surface water no-known-source concentrations exhibit normal distribution.
“Conversely, the concentrations for the no-known-source sites exhibit a normal distribution.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
The meta-analysis aggregated data for more than 35 PFAS from 96 reports published between 1999 and 2021.
“Data for more than 35 PFAS were aggregated from 96 reports published from 1999 to 2021.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Weighted mean PFOA concentration at secondary-source sites is 325 (±320) ng/L.
“The weighted means for secondary-source sites and no-known source sites are 325 (±320) ng/L and 13 (±5) ng/L, respectively, for PFOA”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Median concentrations for secondary-source sites are 2-3 orders of magnitude lower than primary-source sites.
“The median concentrations for the secondary-source sites are 2–3 orders-of-magnitude lower than those for the primary-source sites.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingreasoning
Median surface water PFOA concentration for source sites is more than 20 times larger than PFOS.
“The median PFOA concentration is more than 20-times larger than that of PFOS.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
Median maximum groundwater PFOA concentration for primary-source sites is ~7,400 ng/L.
“The median values of the maximum groundwater concentrations reported for primary-source sites are approximately 45,700 and 7,400 ng/L for PFOS and PFOA, respectively.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Approximately 30% of groundwater data are from secondary-source sites.
“Approximately 30% of the data are reported for secondary-source sites”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
Arithmetic mean PFOS concentration for all groundwater sites is 21,000 (±11,000) ng/L.
“The arithmetic mean concentrations for all sites for PFOA and PFOS, the two most reported PFAS in groundwater, are 15,000 (±12000) ng/L and 21,000 (±11000) ng/L, respectively (Table 3).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingreasoning
PFOS and PFOA concentrations in marine waters are generally much lower than in other media.
“Overall, the concentrations of PFOS and PFOA reported for the marine waters are generally much lower than those reported for the other media.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
Median PFOS maximum soil concentrations for source sites are two and three orders of magnitude larger than no-known-source.
“The median PFOS maximum concentrations for the source sites are observed to be two and three orders-of-magnitude larger than the median no-known-source concentration.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
PFOS, PFOA, and other PFAS occur in soil and waters at levels spanning part-per-trillion to part-per-million.
“Based on the results of this study, PFOS, PFOA, and other PFAS are obviously present in soil and waters at concentrations ranging across many orders of magnitude, from part-per-trillion to ppm levels.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Reported concentrations at many sites exceed drinking-water regulatory or advisory limits for PFAS.
“Inspection of Tables 2 and SI1–2 reveals that the reported concentrations at many of the sites are greater than regulatory or advisory levels that have been implemented for PFAS in drinking water.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingnone given
The number of additional PFAS reported varies greatly among studies.
“However, a range of additional PFAS have been reported, the specific numbers of which vary greatly among the studies.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
Median maximum soil PFOS concentration for primary-source sites is 4,000 μg/kg.
“The median values of the maximum soil concentrations for primary-source sites are 4,000 and 58 μg/kg for PFOS and PFOA, respectively.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
Mean reported concentrations exceed 100 ng/L for the great majority of tabulated PFAS.
“The mean values of the reported concentrations are greater than this value for the great majority of the tabulated PFAS (Table 2).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingreasoning
Higher marine PFAS concentrations are generally associated with restricted/semi-closed seas, coastal shorelines, and bays adjacent to high vessel-traffic ports and high population/industrialized centers.
“The higher concentrations are generally associated with restricted and semi-closed seas, coastal shorelines, and bays adjacent to high vessel-traffic ports and high population/industrialized centers.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
Soil concentrations for no-known-source sites are orders-of-magnitude higher than other media.
“Similar to the source sites, the soil concentrations for the no-known-source sites are orders-of-magnitude higher than for the other media.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingnone given
Addition of new soil studies did not significantly change outcomes of original soil meta-analysis.
“The addition of the new studies did not significantly change the outcomes of the original study.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
Distinct differences in concentration ranges were observed between sites within or near sources and sites without known sources.
“Distinct differences in concentration ranges were observed between sites located within or near sources versus those that are not.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Maximum PFOA concentrations in rainwater range 0.07 to 121 ng/L, median 10 ng/L.
“The maximum PFOA concentrations for rainwater range from 0.07 to 121 ng/L, with a median of 10 ng/L.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
Those median concentrations are below the EPA lifetime health advisory of 70 ng/L.
“These concentrations are below the EPA’s lifetime health advisory (LHA) of 70 ng/L”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The U.S. EPA set a 70 ng/L lifetime health advisory for PFOS and PFOA in drinking water.
- Findingown data
Median maximum soil PFOA concentration for no-known-source sites is 3.1 μg/kg.
“The medians of the maximum soil concentrations for no-known-source sites are 2.7 and 3.1 μg/kg for PFOS and PFOA, respectively.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingnone given
PFOS and PFOA exhibit opposing skewed distributions in soil.
“In addition, PFOS and PFOA exhibit opposing skewed distributions.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
Soil concentrations are typically orders-of-magnitude higher than those in other media.
“Comparison of the values shows that soil concentrations are typically orders-of-magnitude higher than those reported for the other media.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
Median maximum PFOA for source sites is 30 times larger than no-known-source.
“Conversely, the PFOA median concentration is 30 times larger for the source sites compared to the no-known-source sites.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
Median maximum soil PFOS concentration for no-known-source sites is 2.7 μg/kg.
“The medians of the maximum soil concentrations for no-known-source sites are 2.7 and 3.1 μg/kg for PFOS and PFOA, respectively.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingnone given
A large fraction of groundwater studies were concentrated in a few regions.
“A large fraction of the groundwater studies were concentrated in a few regions.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingreasoning
Part-per-million PFOS concentrations have been reported at some sites.
“ppm-level concentrations have been reported for some sites.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Median maximum soil PFOA concentration for primary-source sites is 58 μg/kg.
“The median values of the maximum soil concentrations for primary-source sites are 4,000 and 58 μg/kg for PFOS and PFOA, respectively.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingreasoning
PFAS other than PFOS and PFOA have been reported in groundwater.
“However, a range of additional PFAS have been reported, the specific numbers of which vary greatly among the studies.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Median maximum soil PFOS concentration for secondary-source sites is 350 μg/kg.
“The medians for secondary source sites are 350 and 38 μg/kg for PFOS and PFOA, respectively.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
Median PFOA maximum soil concentrations for source sites are approximately one order of magnitude larger than no-known-source.
“Conversely, they are approximately one order-of-magnitude larger for PFOA.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
PFAS are present in groundwater around the world.
“PFAS was determined to be present in groundwater across the globe.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Those median concentrations are above limits enacted in some U.S. states.
“but are above limits enacted in some U.S. states.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingnone given
Mean reported PFOS concentrations in soil and groundwater are in the part-per-billion range.
“while the mean concentrations reported for PFOS in soil and groundwater are in the part-per-billion range”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
Median maximum soil PFOA concentration for secondary-source sites is 38 μg/kg.
“The medians for secondary source sites are 350 and 38 μg/kg for PFOS and PFOA, respectively.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
Median maximum PFOA concentrations in precipitation, surface water, and groundwater are very similar for no-known-source sites.
“Notably, the median values of the maximum PFOA concentrations in precipitation, surface water, and groundwater are very similar for the no-known-source sites.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingnone given
PFOS and PFOA are usually found at the highest or near-highest concentrations among PFAS in groundwater.
“PFOS and PFOA have been the primary focus of many prior studies and are typically present in the highest or near-highest concentrations.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingnone given
PFAS concentrations in soil are typically much higher than in all other media.
“Concentrations in soil are typically much greater than those in all other media.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
The higher PFOA median may result from preponderance of industrial/manufacturing facilities in regions with highest PFAS.
“This may result from the preponderance of industrial/manufacturing facilities in the regions with the highest PFAS concentrations, and the specific profile of PFAS associated with these facilities.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
Soil has generally significantly greater retention capacity for PFAS than other media.
“as well as the generally significantly greater retention capacity of soil compared to the other media.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
A background concentration of PFAS exists that must be accounted for in regional and site-specific risk assessments.
“This gives rise to the existence of a “background” concentration of PFAS that must be accounted for in both regional and site-specific risk assessments.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisenone given
A detailed quantitative analysis of PFAS concentrations and distributions specifically for groundwater at a global scale had not been reported prior to this study.
“While there have been many recent reviews providing anecdotal overviews of PFAS occurrence in various media, a detailed, quantitative analysis of PFAS concentrations and distributions specifically for groundwater at a global scale has yet to be reported.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation
PFAS are ubiquitous in environmental media across the globe.
“It has become evident that PFAS are ubiquitous in environmental media across the globe (e.g., Prevedouros et al. 2006; Rayne and Forest, 2009; Ahrens, 2011; Krafft and Riess, 2015; Brusseau et al. 2020).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked - Interpretationreasoning
The large plume lengths are consistent with relatively low sorption and transformation anticipated for many PFAS in groundwater.
“These relatively large plume lengths are consistent with the relatively low magnitudes of sorption and transformation anticipated for many PFAS in groundwater systems.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
The background concentration reflects large-scale use of PFAS, their recalcitrance, and long-range transport.
“The presence of this background is a reflection of the large-scale use of PFAS, their general recalcitrance, and the action of long-range transport processes that distribute PFAS across regional and global scales.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
Soil is the primary entry point for PFAS release into the environment for many sites.
“This accrues to soil being the primary entry point for PFAS release into the environment for many sites”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation
PFAS concentrations in soil are often orders of magnitude greater than in groundwater, as reported in prior studies.
“The observation of PFAS concentrations in soil often being orders of magnitude greater than those in groundwater has been reported in prior studies (Anderson et al. 2019; Brusseau et al., 2020).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked - Interpretationcitation
Porewater concentrations are anticipated to range from ng/L to mg/L depending on soil concentrations and site nature.
“Porewater concentrations are anticipated to range from ng/L to mg/L depending upon soil concentrations, which in turn depend upon the nature of the sites.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Brusseau and Guo, 2022 source
Not checked in the free run.
- Premisecitation
Initial field and modeling studies reflect these anticipated porewater concentrations.
“The results of initial field and mathematical-modeling studies reflect these anticipated concentrations (Guo et al., 2020; Quinnan et al., 2021; Brusseau and Guo, 2022).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked - Interpretationreasoning
A background concentration of PFAS exists.
“This gives rise to the existence of a “background” concentration of PFAS.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
The disparity between groundwater and surface water is likely related to differences in source concentrations and dilution/dispersal.
“This disparity is likely related to differences in source concentrations and in the impacts related to dilution and dispersal processes.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
Lower marine PFAS concentrations in open-sea regions are attributed primarily to atmospheric deposition, shipping routes, or general transport and dilution.
“The lower concentrations of PFAS present in open-sea regions were attributed primarily to atmospheric deposition, shipping routes, or general transport and dilution processes from distant sources.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
PFAS are pervasive and widely distributed throughout the global environment.
“This indicates that PFAS are pervasive and widely distributed throughout the environment globally.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
PFAS are present in precipitation at significant levels.
“These results demonstrate that PFAS are present in precipitation at significant levels.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Premisecitation
PFAS presence in drinking water has been shown in multiple studies.
“The presence of PFAS in drinking water has been illustrated in multiple studies (e.g., Hu et al., 2016; Guelfo and Adamson, 2018).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites Hu et al., 2016
Not checked in the free run.
- cites Guelfo and Adamson, 2018 source
Not checked in the free run.
- Interpretationreasoning
There is potential for PFAS to be present in potable water supplies that originate from impacted sources.
“A critical implication of this is the potential for PFAS to be present in potable water supplies originating from impacted sources.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation
The European Commission proposed a 100 ng/L limit for each of 16 PFAS in its 2018 update to the EU drinking water rules.
“the European Commission has proposed a limit of 100 ng/L for each of 16 individual PFAS in the 2018 revision of the EU Drinking Water Directive (EEA, 2022).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites EEA, 2022
Not checked in the free run.
- Interpretationreasoning
Higher marine PFAS concentrations in coastal waters are attributed to surface runoff and river discharges.
“Conversely, the higher PFAS concentrations reported for coastal waters were generally attributed to surface runoff and river discharges.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
- May combine two claims. 26
- Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 9
May combine two claims.
Findingown dataMore than half of primary-source sites are military installations or airports, primarily AFFF-impacted.
“More than half of these sites are identified as military installations or airports, primarily comprising AFFF-impacted sites.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataSurface water studies used for comparison comprise >1,700 sampling sites from >30 countries.
“The aggregated surface-water studies used for the comparison of maximum PFOA and PFOS concentrations comprise a total of more than 1,700 sampling sites, with concentration data collected from >30 countries and regions.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
FindingreasoningNo-known-source median concentrations are 3 and 6 times lower than secondary-source sites for PFOS and PFOA, respectively.
“Conversely, they are 3 and 6 times lower, respectively, than those reported for the secondary source sites.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataMaximum PFOS and PFOA concentrations in snow range ~0.5-545 and ~20-66 ng/L, respectively.
“The maximum concentrations of PFOS and PFOA in snow range from ~0.5–545 and ~20–66 ng/L, respectively.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataFor no-known-source sites, the median maximum groundwater concentrations are 30 ng/L for PFOS and 15 ng/L for PFOA.
“For example, the median values of the maximum groundwater concentrations are 30 and 15 ng/L for PFOS and PFOA, respectively, for no-known-source sites.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataMedian maximum marine PFOS and PFOA concentrations are 0.2 and 0.3 ng/L.
“The median values of the maximum concentrations are 0.2 and 0.3 ng/L, respectively, for PFOS and PFOA in the marine waters.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataMedian maximum soil PFOS and PFOA concentrations for primary-source sites are 4,000,000 and 58,000 ng/kg.
“The median values of the maximum PFOS and PFOA soil concentrations are 4,000,000 and 58,000 ng/kg, respectively, for the primary-source sites.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataMedian maximum surface water PFOS and PFOA concentrations are 22 and 570 ng/L.
“The median values for PFOS and PFOA, respectively, are approximately 45,700 and 7,400 ng/L for groundwater and 22 and 570 ng/L for surface water.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataMedian maximum soil PFOS and PFOA concentrations for no-known-source sites are 2,700 and 3,100 ng/kg.
“The median values of the maximum PFOS and PFOA soil concentrations for no-known-source sites are 2,700 and 3,100 ng/kg, respectively.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataMedian maximum PFOS concentration in rainwater is ~3 ng/L, with maximums 0.1 to 50 ng/L.
“The median of the maximum PFOS concentrations in rainwater is ~3 ng/L, with the maximums ranging from 0.1 to 50 ng/L.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataReported PFAS concentrations in groundwater span many orders of magnitude, with the highest values reaching part-per-million levels.
“The reported concentrations of PFAS in groundwater ranged over many orders of magnitude, with the highest concentrations in part-per-million (ppm) levels.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataThe study's results show that PFAS are widespread in groundwater and surface water.
“The results presented in this study demonstrate the widespread presence of PFAS in both groundwater and surface water.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingnone givenNo-known-source median values for PFOS and PFOA are 30 and 15 ng/L for groundwater and 10 and 18 ng/L for surface water.
“The no-known-source-site median values for PFOS and PFOA, respectively, are 30 and 15 ng/L for groundwater and 10 and 18 ng/L for surface water.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingnone givenMedian values for PFOS and PFOA in precipitation are ~3 and ~18 ng/L.
“The median values are ~3 and ~18 ng/L, respectively, for PFOS and PFOA in precipitation (combined rainwater and snow data).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
FindingreasoningPFAS have been reported in every environmental medium and every region tested, including areas far from specific PFAS sources.
“The presence of PFAS has been reported for all environmental media in all regions tested including areas that are far removed from specific PFAS sources.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataMedian maximum marine PFOS concentration is 0.2 ng/L, with maximums 0.001 to ~760 ng/L.
“The median of the maximum PFOS concentrations is 0.2 ng/L, with the maximums ranging from 0.001 to ~760 ng/L.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataMedian maximum groundwater PFOS and PFOA concentrations are ~45,700 and 7,400 ng/L.
“The median values for PFOS and PFOA, respectively, are approximately 45,700 and 7,400 ng/L for groundwater and 22 and 570 ng/L for surface water.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Findingown dataTwenty studies reported PFAS concentrations in precipitation.
“Twenty studies were accessed that reported concentrations of PFAS in precipitation.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).
Findingnone givenPFOS and PFOA concentrations in precipitation are in the ng/L range.
“As noted above, the concentrations reported for PFOS and PFOA in precipitation are in the ng/L range.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataMaximum marine PFOA concentrations range 0.001 to ~1,600 ng/L, median 0.3 ng/L.
“The maximum PFOA concentrations range from 0.001 to ~1,600 ng/L, with a median of 0.3 ng/L.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
FindingreasoningPFOS and PFOA groundwater concentrations are three and one orders of magnitude higher than surface water for source sites.
“The PFOS and PFOA groundwater concentrations are three and one orders-of-magnitude higher, respectively, than those for surface water for the source sites.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataMarine water PFAS distributions are approximately positively skewed, with greatest number of concentrations 0.01-0.3 ng/L.
“The distributions are approximately positively skewed, with the greatest number of concentrations within a range of 0.01–0.3 ng/L.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
PremisecitationGroundwater represents 26% of total water withdrawals for domestic, industrial, and irrigation uses.
“Furthermore, groundwater is estimated to represent 26% of total water withdrawals for combined domestic, industrial, and irrigation uses (Margat and van der Gun, 2013).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Margat and van der Gun, 2013
Not checked in the free run.
Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.
PremisecitationMany PFAS are environmentally persistent, bioaccumulative, and have potential toxicological impacts.
“Many of these compounds, of which several thousand have been identified (OECD, 2018), are known to be environmentally persistent, bioaccumulative (especially long-chain homologues), and have potential deleterious toxicological impacts to a variety of organisms (e.g., Buck et al. 2011).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites OECD, 2018
Not checked in the free run.
- cites Buck et al. 2011 source
Not checked in the free run.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
PremisecitationGroundwater provides almost half of all drinking water worldwide.
“For example, groundwater is estimated to provide almost half of all drinking water worldwide (UNESCO, 2022).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites UNESCO, 2022
Not checked in the free run.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
InterpretationreasoningSome no-known-source sites may have been impacted by sources identified but located relatively far away or unidentified.
“Hence, it is possible that some of the sites may have been impacted by sources either identified but located relatively far away or unidentified.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
InterpretationcitationThe disparity between soil distributions reflects in part nature of sources, with AFFF-impacted sources comprising majority of primary source sites.
“The disparity between the two distributions reflects in part the nature of the sources, with AFFF-impacted sources comprising the great majority of primary source sites (Brusseau et al., 2020).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Brusseau et al., 2020 source
Not checked in the free run.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
InterpretationreasoningThe similarity may reflect large-scale transport of PFOA throughout the hydrologic cycle.
“This result may in part reflect large-scale transport of PFOA throughout the hydrologic cycle.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
InterpretationreasoningThe lower marine concentrations likely reflect greater dilution/dispersal and lower inputs.
“It is probable that PFAS present in marine systems experience greater magnitudes of dilution and dispersal compared to the other systems. In addition, the concentrations of PFAS entering marine systems are anticipated to be generally lower than inputs to other media.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
InterpretationreasoningThe delineation of no-known-source sites can be unclear in some cases.
“The delineation of no-known-source sites in particular may in some cases be nebulous”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: Many PFAS sources remain undiscovered.
May combine two claims.
InterpretationreasoningSignificantly higher PFOS compared to PFOA for soil and groundwater is related to primary-source sites comprising AFFF-impacted sites and PFOS being a primary PFAS in AFFF.
“The significantly higher concentrations observed for PFOS compared to PFOA for soil and groundwater is related to many of the primary-source sites comprising AFFF-impacted sites and that PFOS was a primary PFAS in AFFF.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
InterpretationreasoningThe background concentration reflects large-scale PFAS use, their general persistence, and long-range transport that moves PFAS across regional and global scales.
“The presence of this background is a reflection of the large-scale use of PFAS, their general recalcitrance, and the action of long-range transport processes that distribute PFAS across regional and global scales.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
PremisereasoningOne source of PFAS release into marine waters is precipitation.
“For example, one source of PFAS release into marine waters is precipitation.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
InterpretationreasoningPFAS being everywhere in the global hydrosphere threatens drinking-water quality and water-resource sustainability.
“The ubiquitous distribution of PFAS in the global hydrosphere poses a threat to drinking-water quality and water-resource sustainability.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
The authors state this as an assumption.
The reported PFAS concentrations represent total concentrations of individual PFAS.
“Thus, the reported concentrations are assumed to represent total concentration of the individual PFAS.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The source-type classifications provided by the original studies are accurate.
“The classification of the sites was based on information reported by the authors of the original studies.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Variations in sample processing, analysis methods, and detection limits across studies do not invalidate the aggregated comparisons.
“Sample processing and analysis methods varied somewhat across the studies, and the reported quantitative detection limits (LOQ) also varied among the studies.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Excluding non-detects does not bias the concentration distributions.
“Non-detects were not included in the analyses.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Many PFAS sources remain undiscovered.
“considering that it is quite likely that there are many PFAS sources yet to be discovered.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The U.S. EPA set a 70 ng/L lifetime health advisory for PFOS and PFOA in drinking water.
“These concentrations are below the EPA’s lifetime health advisory (LHA) of 70 ng/L”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
Johnson et al. reviewed 96 studies for PFAS distribution in groundwater, of which AFFF-impacted sites made up 32% of known sources, 18% were in locations impacted by PFAS manufacturing and industrial activities, and only 3% were for biosolid application sites.
“For example, Johnson et al.28 reviewed 96 studies for PFAS distribution in groundwater of which AFFF-impacted sites made up 32% of known sources, 18% in locations impacted by PFAS manufacturing and industrial activities, and only 3% for biosolid application sites.”
From Sources and Pathways of PFAS Occurrence in Water Sources: Relative Contribution of Land-Applied Biosolids in an Agricultural Dominated Watershed (2025) · cites this paper as [28]
In the biosolid sites reviewed by Johnson et al., only one study evaluated PFAS mobilization to drinking wells beyond the biosolid application site.
“Moreover, in the biosolid sites, only one study evaluated PFAS mobilization to drinking wells beyond the biosolid application site.”
From Sources and Pathways of PFAS Occurrence in Water Sources: Relative Contribution of Land-Applied Biosolids in an Agricultural Dominated Watershed (2025) · cites this paper as [28]
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.
Conflicting maximum groundwater concentration for PFOS
MajorThe abstract gives a maximum PFOS concentration of approximately 5 mg/L, but the groundwater results report 9.7×106 ng/L, equivalent to 9.7 mg/L. The two reported maxima differ by nearly a factor of two.
“perfluorooctanesulfonic acid (PFOS), ranging from 0.01 ng/L to ~5 mg/L”
“The maximum concentrations range up to 9.7 (9.7×106 ng/L) and 6.6 mg/L (6.6×106 ng/L) for PFOS and PFOA, respectively.”
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PFOS and Its Substitute OBS Cause Endothelial Dysfunction to Promote Atherogenesis in ApoE –/– Mice
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“In contrast, the maximum concentration of PFOA changed from 0.001 to 1600 ng/L, with a median of 0.3 ng/L (Johnson et al., 2022).”
InfluentialSurfactants in the Environment: Self-Assembly of PFAS Pollutants in Solution and at Interfaces
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“L -1 for perfluorobutane sulfonate (PFBS) [8], in surface water system, reaching levels of up to 100 ng.”
Global ecological and health risks of PFAS in surface soil
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Bird’s-eye view of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances pollution research in the African hydrosphere
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“The worldwide groundwater concentration of PFOS was reported to be in the range from 0.01 ng/L to 5 mg/L, which is highly concerning [6,7].”
InfluentialRemoval of Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances Using Commercially Available Sorbents
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“A study by Johnson et al. [43] on the global distribution of PFAS contamination notes that the arithmetic means of the concentration of PFOA and PFOS in all the primary source A study by Johnson et al. [43] on the global distribution of PFAS contamination notes that the arithmetic means of the…”
InfluentialPFAS-contaminated drinking water harms infants
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“…derived from electrochemical fluorination are the most frequently reported PFAS in rainwater often with perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS) and perfluo-rooctanoic acid (PFOA), in particular, observed with the highest concentrations among target analytes (Cousins et al., 2022; Johnson et al., 2022).”
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“…of (non-polymeric) PFAS, and their extreme persistence, have resulted in globally widespread detections within soil, groundwater, and surface water (Johnson et al. 2022; Wang et al. 2023) at low but potentially significant levels as well as point source wastewater discharges, land contamination…”
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Emerging Contaminants in Groundwater: Challenges, Management, and Policy Perspectives
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“These factors have led to widespread low-level detections of PFAS in groundwater and surface waters (Hu et al. 2016; Brusseau et al. 2020; Johnson et al. 2022; Kur-wadkar et al. 2022).”
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- Authors
- Johnson, G. R., Brusseau, M. L., Carroll, K. C., Tick, G. R., & Duncan, C. M.
- Affiliations
- Portland State University (US)
- University of Arizona (US)
- New Mexico State University (US)
- University of Alabama (US)
- University of Maryland, College Park (US)
- Corresponding author
- Johnson, Gwynn R.
- Brusseau, Mark L.
- Venue
- Science of The Total Environment
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2022-10
- Volume
- 841
- Pages
- 156602
- ISSN
- 0048-9697 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC9653090
- OpenAlex
- W4281734724
- Semantic Scholar
- 297055efd066dd6b35a92142827bc86671991c5e
- Cited by
- 173
- References
- 105
- Citations by year
- 2026: 51 · 2025: 63 · 2024: 32 · 2023: 24 · 2022: 3
- FWCI
- 10.81
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Licence
- www.elsevier.com/tdm/userlicense/1.0/ (tdm)
- www.elsevier.com/legal/tdmrep-license (tdm)
- www.elsevier.com/open-access/userlicense/1.0/ (am, 251 d)
- doi.org/10.15223/policy-017 (stm-asf)
- doi.org/10.15223/policy-037 (stm-asf)
- doi.org/10.15223/policy-012 (stm-asf)
- doi.org/10.15223/policy-029 (stm-asf)
- doi.org/10.15223/policy-004 (stm-asf)
- Locations
- The Science of The Total Environment (acceptedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- PDXScholar (Portland State University) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (P42 ES04940)
- National Institute of Food and Agriculture (1023257)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Environmental Chemistry › Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances research
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Water Science and Technology › Fluoride Effects and Removal
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Health, Toxicology and Mutagenesis › Chemical Analysis and Environmental Impact
- Keywords
- per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances, PFAS, groundwater contamination, global distribution, perfluorooctanoic acid, PFOS, fluorotelomer sulfonates, background concentrations, long-range transport, soil contamination, water quality, risk assessment
- MeSH terms
- Fluorocarbons, Humans, Soil, Water Pollutants, Chemical, Alkanesulfonic Acids, Ecosystem, Groundwater
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Claims read by deepseek-v4.1-flash under definition version 3 (extract-v3) on 2026-10-07.
Classified by jev-1.13-20260917 (gold-guideline-v0.2) on 2026-10-07.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
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