The Autism-Spectrum Quotient (AQ): Evidence from Asperger Syndrome/High-Functioning Autism, Males and Females, Scientists and Mathematicians
Abstract
Currently there are no brief, self-administered instruments for measuring the degree to which an adult with normal intelligence has the traits associated with the autistic spectrum. In this paper, we report on a new instrument to assess this: the Autism-Spectrum Quotient (AQ). Individuals score in the range 0-50. Four groups of subjects were assessed: Group 1: 58 adults with Asperger syndrome (AS) or high-functioning autism (HFA); Group 2: 174 randomly selected controls. Group 3: 840 students in Cambridge University; and Group 4: 16 winners of the UK Mathematics Olympiad. The adults with AS/HFA had a mean AQ score of 35.8 (SD = 6.5), significantly higher than Group 2 controls (M = 16.4, SD = 6.3). 80% of the adults with AS/HFA scored 32+, versus 2% of controls. Among the controls, men scored slightly but significantly higher than women. No women scored extremely highly (AQ score 34+) whereas 4% of men did so. Twice as many men (40%) as women (21%) scored at intermediate levels (AQ score 20+). Among the AS/HFA group, male and female scores did not differ significantly. The students in Cambridge University did not differ from the randomly selected control group, but scientists (including mathematicians) scored significantly higher than both humanities and social sciences students, confirming an earlier study that autistic conditions are associated with scientific skills. Within the sciences, mathematicians scored highest. This was replicated in Group 4, the Mathematics Olympiad…
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A further 57 NT participants took part in a replication of the main behavioural finding.
“An additional 57 NTs were studied as part of a replication of our key behavioural result (25 male, 32 female; mean age: 27.1, age range: 19–50) and additionally completed the Autism Spectrum Quotient (AQ) questionnaire; a 50-item self-report measure of autistic traits 32,55.”
From Adults with autism overestimate the volatility of the sensory environment (2017) · cites this paper as [32]
The Adolescent/Adult Sensory Profile (AASP) finds differences in sensory processing in more than 90% of adults with autism spectrum conditions (ASC).
“The most widely used measure for adults with ASC is the Adolescent/Adult Sensory Profile (AASP), a 60-item self-report measure that finds differences in sensory processing in more than 90% of adults with ASC [17,19].”
From The Sensory Perception Quotient (SPQ): development and validation of a new sensory questionnaire for adults with and without autism (2014) · cites this paper as [17]
The RAADS-R is usually considered better at picking up female autism traits than traditional screening measures such as the Autism Quotient.
“While the RAADS-R is usually considered better at picking up female autism traits than traditional screening measures such as the Autism Quotient43”
From Beyond bendy joints: number of variant connective tissue features predicts neurodivergent characteristics in hypermobile individuals with anxiety (2026) · cites this paper as [43]
Autism characteristics were assessed using the AQ-Short, an abridged 28-item version of the original 50-item AQ, a continuous self-report measure of autism spectrum traits in adults.
“Autism characteristics were assessed using the Autism Spectrum Quotient-Short (AQ-Short) (Hoekstra et al., 2011), which is an abridged 28-item version of the original 50-item AQ (Baron-Cohen et al., 2001), a continuous self-report measure of autism spectrum traits in adults.”
From A mixed methods study of autistic adults' mental health therapy experiences (2023) · cites this paper as Baron-Cohen et al., 2001
The AQ was not designed to be diagnostic but rather a dimensional measure of ASD traits.
“as the AQ was not designed to be diagnostic but rather a dimensional measure of ASD traits.”
From Modeling the cognitive mechanisms linking autism symptoms and anxiety in adults. (2016) · cites this paper as Baron-Cohen et al., 2001
The AQ has reasonable construct and face validity and good test-retest and interrater reliability and is a useful screening instrument in clinical practice.
“It has reasonable construct and face validity and good test-retest and interrater reliability [27] and is a useful screening instrument in clinical practice [64].”
There is an association, at a group level, between mathematical and scientific occupations and autism.
“Because there is an association, at a group level, between mathematical and scientific occupations and autism [80”
From Aphantasia and hyperphantasia: exploring imagery vividness extremes (2024) · cites this paper as [80]
The AQ has good internal consistency (α = .82) and good test-retest reliability (r = .70).
“The AQ has good internal consistency (α = .82; Austin, 2005) and good test–retest reliability (r = .70; Baron-Cohen, Wheelwright, Skinner, et al., 2001).”
From ‘Theory of Mind’ is not Theory of Emotion: a cautionary note on the reading the Mind in the Eyes test (2016) · cites this paper as Baron-Cohen, Wheelwright, Skinner, et al., 2001
The Autism Spectrum Quotient and the communication checklist assess day-to-day behaviour and can be seen as an index of autistic symptomatology.
“Both these tests assess day-today behaviour, and can be seen as an index of autistic symptomatology.”
From Executive processes in Asperger syndrome: Patterns of performance in a multiple case series (2006) · cites this paper as Baron-Cohen, Wheelwright, Skinner, Martin, & Clubley, 2001
ASD patient samples typically display peak scores of 35.8±6.5.
“whereas ASD patient samples typically display peak scores of 35.8±6.5”
From An oxytocin-induced facilitation of neural and emotional responses to social touch correlates inversely with autism traits (2014) · cites this paper as Baron-Cohen et al, 2001
Subjects completed validated psychometric questionnaires before treatment to control for potential confounding effects from personality traits or mood states.
“To control for potential confounding effects from personality traits or mood states, subjects completed Chinese versions of validated psychometric questionnaires before treatment, including the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (Watson et al., 1988), Autism Spectrum Quotient (Baron-Cohen et al., 2001), Empathy Quotient (Baron-Cohen and Wheelwright, 2004), and NEO 5-factor inventory (Costa and”
From Oxytocin facilitates approach behavior to positive social stimuli via decreasing anterior insula activity (2018) · cites this paper as Baron-Cohen et al., 2001
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“However, there was a significant difference in the AQ scores of males and females, as would be expected [t(210) = 2.92, p \ .01] (Baron-Cohen et al. 2001).”
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Fetal testosterone and autistic traits
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Self-citationAutistic peer-to-peer information transfer is highly effective
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“(AQ), indicating low levels of autistic traits (Baron-Cohen et al., 2001).”
BackgroundInfluentialAtypical eye contact in autism: models, mechanisms and development
Senju, A., & Johnson, M. H. (2009) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2009.06.001 · Cited by 454 · see citing works
Oxytocin selectively improves empathic accuracy
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“A further extension of the broad autism phenotype beyond those with a genetic connection and into the general population began with instruments such as the AQ (Baron-Cohen et al., 2001) and Social Responsiveness Scale (SRS; Constantino et al.”
MethodConsensus Paper: Cerebellum and Social Cognition
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Cassidy, S., Bradley, P., Robinson, J., Allison, C., McHugh, M., & Baron-Cohen, S. (2014) · The Lancet Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/s2215-0366(14)70248-2 · Cited by 432 · see citing works
Self-citationSex Differences in Romantic Attachment: A Meta-Analysis
Del Giudice, M. (2011) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167210392789 · Cited by 441 · see citing works
Self-Referential Cognition and Empathy in Autism
Lombardo, M. V., Barnes, J. L., Wheelwright, S. J., & Baron‐Cohen, S. (2007) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0000883 · Cited by 439 · see citing works
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Vellante, M., Baron-Cohen, S., Melis, M., Marrone, M., Petretto, D. R., Masala, C., & Preti, A. (2013) · Cognitive Neuropsychiatry · doi:10.1080/13546805.2012.721728 · Cited by 406 · see citing works
Self-citationEvidence for mirror systems in emotions
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Rutherford, M. D., Baron-Cohen, S., & Wheelwright, S. (2002) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1023/a:1015497629971 · Cited by 411 · see citing works
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“ard” observational assessment for diagnosing autism), AQ (Autism Spectrum Quotient) [29] and SCQ (Social”
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Loneliness, friendship, and well-being in adults with autism spectrum disorders
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“The original scoring for the AQ utilized a dichotomous approach for each item (with a possible range of scores of 0–50) (Baron-Cohen et al., 2001).”
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Bowles, D. C., McKone, E., Dawel, A., Duchaine, B., Palermo, R., Schmalzl, L., Rivolta, D., Wilson, C., & Yovel, G. (2009) · Cognitive Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/02643290903343149 · Cited by 397 · see citing works
Revisiting the Strange Stories: Revealing Mentalizing Impairments in Autism
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Wakabayashi, A., Baron-Cohen, S., Wheelwright, S., Goldenfeld, N., Delaney, J., Fine, D., Smith, R., & Weil, L. (2006) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2006.03.017 · Cited by 387 · see citing works
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Self-citationASD in Females: Are We Overstating the Gender Difference in Diagnosis?
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Atypical neural self-representation in autism.
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Self-citationEmotion regulation in Asperger’s syndrome and high-functioning autism
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“As expected, individuals with AS/HFA scored higher (M 25.44, SD 4.53) than the controls (M 8.19, SD 4.51) on the short German version (AQ-k; Freitag et al., 2007) of the AutismSpectrum Quotient (AQ, original long version by Baron-Cohen et al., 2001), F(1, 53) 196.77, p .001, .89.”
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Eye-movements reveal attention to social information in autism spectrum disorder
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The Autism-Spectrum Quotient (AQ) in Japan: A Cross-Cultural Comparison
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Self-citationLoneliness, social relationships, and a broader autism phenotype in college students
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Sex differences in eye gaze and symbolic cueing of attention
Bayliss, A. P., di Pellegrino, G., & Tipper, S. P. (2004) · The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology Section A · doi:10.1080/02724980443000124 · Cited by 340 · see citing works
Psychosocial Correlates of Interpersonal Sensitivity: A Meta-Analysis
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Subgrouping the Autism Spectrum: Reflections on DSM-5
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“, ‘‘Becomes upset in a situation with lots of things going on’’) or the Autism Spectrum Quotient (AQ) [27] (e.”
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“To assess dimensional symptom severity across ASD core domains, we used several parent-report instruments with relative emphasis on social-communication [24, 25], repetitive and restricted behaviours [26, 27], sensory processing anomalies [28, 29], and overall autism symptom severity [30, 31] (see Additional file 1).”
Self-citationAlexithymia, not autism, is associated with impaired interoception
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- Authors
- Baron-Cohen, S., Wheelwright, S., Skinner, R., Martin, J., & Clubley, E.
- Affiliations
- University of Cambridge (GB)
- ORCID
- Wheelwright, Sally
- Venue
- Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders
- Published
- 2001-02
- Volume
- 31
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 5-17
- ISSN
- 0162-3257 (ISSN-L)
- 1573-3432
- OpenAlex
- W2100254283
- Cited by
- 6,450
- References
- 34
- Citations by year
- 2026: 411 · 2025: 486 · 2024: 492 · 2023: 490 · 2022: 448 · 2021: 491 · 2020: 460 · 2019: 419 · 2018: 417 · 2017: 353 · 2016: 306 · 2015: 304 · 2014: 282 · 2013: 266 · 2012: 190
- FWCI
- 7.68
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Licence
- Locations
- Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- Medical Research Council
- Institute of Materials Research and Engineering
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Autism Spectrum Disorder Research
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Developmental Neuroscience › Williams Syndrome Research
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Personality Traits and Psychology
- Keywords
- Autism Spectrum Quotient, autism spectrum disorder, Asperger syndrome, high-functioning autism, self-report questionnaire, autistic traits, sex differences, autism screening, test-retest reliability, inter-rater reliability
- MeSH terms
- Adult, Autistic Disorder, Diagnosis, Differential, England, Female, Humans, Intelligence, Male, Personality Assessment, Personality Inventory, Psychometrics, Students, Reproducibility of Results, Asperger Syndrome
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