The Test of Time: Predictors and Effects of Duration in Youth Mentoring Relationships

Youth who were in matches that lasted more than 12 months reported significant decreases in their alcohol use.

“On the other hand, youth who were in matches that lasted more than 12 months reported significant increases in their self-worth, perceived social acceptance, perceived scholastic competence, parental relationship quality, school value, and decreases in both drug and alcohol use.”

Youth who were in matches that lasted more than 12 months reported significant increases in their self-worth.

“On the other hand, youth who were in matches that lasted more than 12 months reported significant increases in their self-worth, perceived social acceptance, perceived scholastic competence, parental relationship quality, school value, and decreases in both drug and alcohol use.”

Youth who were in matches that lasted more than 12 months reported significant increases in their parental relationship quality.

“On the other hand, youth who were in matches that lasted more than 12 months reported significant increases in their self-worth, perceived social acceptance, perceived scholastic competence, parental relationship quality, school value, and decreases in both drug and alcohol use.”

Mentored youth were categorized into four groups based on match length: less than 3 months (6%), 3 to just under 6 months (13%), 6 to just under 12 months (36%), and 12 months or more (45%).

“In order to investigate the effects of relationship duration, we began by categorizing the mentored youth into four groups, depending on how long their matches had lasted: less than 3 months (6%), 3 to just under 6 months (13%), 6 to just under 12 months (36%), and 12 months or more (45%).”

Youth who were in matches that lasted more than 12 months reported significant increases in their perceived social acceptance.

“On the other hand, youth who were in matches that lasted more than 12 months reported significant increases in their self-worth, perceived social acceptance, perceived scholastic competence, parental relationship quality, school value, and decreases in both drug and alcohol use.”

Youth who were in matches that lasted more than 12 months reported significant increases in their school value.

“On the other hand, youth who were in matches that lasted more than 12 months reported significant increases in their self-worth, perceived social acceptance, perceived scholastic competence, parental relationship quality, school value, and decreases in both drug and alcohol use.”

Youth who were in matches that lasted more than 12 months reported significant increases in their perceived scholastic competence.

“On the other hand, youth who were in matches that lasted more than 12 months reported significant increases in their self-worth, perceived social acceptance, perceived scholastic competence, parental relationship quality, school value, and decreases in both drug and alcohol use.”

Youth who were in matches that lasted more than 12 months reported significant decreases in their drug use.

“On the other hand, youth who were in matches that lasted more than 12 months reported significant increases in their self-worth, perceived social acceptance, perceived scholastic competence, parental relationship quality, school value, and decreases in both drug and alcohol use.”

Matches involving 13-16 year olds were 65% more likely to break up in each period than matches with 10-12 year olds.

“Additionally, matches involving 13-16 year olds were 65% more likely to break up in each period than matches with 10-12 year olds.”

• Also stated in: § DISCUSSION · hedged

  “In particular, older adolescents tended to have shorter relationships than younger adolescents.”

Youth who were in relationships that lasted a year or longer reported improvements in academic, psychosocial, and behavioral outcomes.

“In support of this prediction we found that youth who were in relationships that lasted a year or longer reported improvements in academic, psychosocial, and behavioral outcomes; and progressively fewer effects emerged among youth who were in relationships that terminated between 6 months and 1 year or between 3 and 6 months.”

• Also stated in: § DISCUSSION · plain

  “Specifically, youth in relationships that lasted for a year or more reported the largest number of improvements, with fewer effects emerging among youth in relationships that lasted from 6 to 12 months.”

• Also stated in: § DISCUSSION · plain

  “Consistent with previous research regarding the complexities of mentoring relationships (Rhodes et al., 1999), most of the positive effects emerged in relationships that persisted for a year or longer.”

All of the other factors remained significant, even after taking into account the influence of relationship quality.

“All of the other factors remained significant, even after taking into account the influence of relationship quality.”

Youth who were in relationships that terminated within 3 months reported drops in self-worth and perceived scholastic competence.

“Additionally, youth who were in relationships that terminated within 3 months reported drops in self-worth and perceived scholastic competence.”

Volunteers' age appeared to interact with marital status in its effects on match duration.

“Volunteers' age appeared to interact with marital status in its effects on match duration.”

In general, the significant, positive impacts increased with relationship duration.

“In general, the significant, positive impacts increased with relationship duration (see Fig. 1).”

Adolescents who had sustained emotional, sexual or physical abuse were most likely to be in early terminating relationships.

“Older adolescents, as well as those who had been referred for services or had sustained emotional, sexual or physical abuse, were most likely to be in early terminating relationships, as were married volunteers aged 26-30 and those with lower incomes.Several dyadic factors were also found to be related to earlier terminations, including race, gender, and relationship quality.”

A 25% increase in the average hazard rate would decrease the length of the match to 13.3 months.

“A 25% increase in this average hazard rate would decrease the length of the match to 13.3 months, whereas a 50% increase would decrease the length of the match to 11.1 months.A 25% decrease in the average hazard rate would increase the length of the match to 22 months.”

• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: All matches experience a probability of breaking up each period.

Overall, the correlation between the resulting instrumental variable and the observed length of match is equal to .44.

“Overall, the correlation between the resulting instrumental variable (included in Stage 2) and the observed length of match is equal to .44.”

The model did poorly in predicting short matches.

“However, the model did poorly in predicting short matches.”

The finding that cross-race minority matches terminated more often did not hold with respect to dyads in which the interests of the youth and volunteer were a primary matching criterion.

“Similarly, although cross-race minority matches terminated more often than same-race white ( p < .05),this finding did not hold with respect to dyads in which the interests of the youth and volunteer were a primary matching criteria (see Table III).”

Volunteers with lower incomes were most likely to be in early terminating relationships.

“Older adolescents, as well as those who had been referred for services or had sustained emotional, sexual or physical abuse, were most likely to be in early terminating relationships, as were married volunteers aged 26-30 and those with lower incomes.Several dyadic factors were also found to be related to earlier terminations, including race, gender, and relationship quality.”

Race was related to earlier terminations.

“Older adolescents, as well as those who had been referred for services or had sustained emotional, sexual or physical abuse, were most likely to be in early terminating relationships, as were married volunteers aged 26-30 and those with lower incomes.Several dyadic factors were also found to be related to earlier terminations, including race, gender, and relationship quality.”

The finding that same-race minority matches terminated more often did not hold with respect to minority dyads in which race was an explicit matching criterion.

“Additionally, although same-race minority matches terminated marginally more often than same-race white matches ( p = .08),this finding did not hold with respect to minority dyads in which race was an explicit matching criteria.”

Married volunteers aged 26-30 were 86% more likely to terminate each month than 18-to 25-year-old volunteers.

“Relative to matches with 18-to 25-year-old volunteers, unmarried volunteers aged 26-30 were 65% less likely to terminate each month, but married volunteers aged 26-30 years were 86% (exp[1.05-.43]) more likely to terminate each month.”

• Also stated in: § DISCUSSION · plain

  “Interestingly, married volunteers aged 26-30 were at greatest risk for early termination.”

Same-race minority matches terminated marginally more often than same-race white matches (p = .08).

“Additionally, although same-race minority matches terminated marginally more often than same-race white matches ( p = .08),this finding did not hold with respect to minority dyads in which race was an explicit matching criteria.”

Relationship quality was related to earlier terminations.

“Older adolescents, as well as those who had been referred for services or had sustained emotional, sexual or physical abuse, were most likely to be in early terminating relationships, as were married volunteers aged 26-30 and those with lower incomes.Several dyadic factors were also found to be related to earlier terminations, including race, gender, and relationship quality.”

Cross-race minority matches terminated more often than same-race white matches (p < .05).

“Similarly, although cross-race minority matches terminated more often than same-race white ( p < .05),this finding did not hold with respect to dyads in which the interests of the youth and volunteer were a primary matching criteria (see Table III).”

The relationship scales significantly increased the explanatory power of the model (model chi-square 69.6 vs. 109.30).

“The relationship scales significantly increased the explanatory power of the model (model chi-square 69.6 vs. 109.30)and attenuated the negative effects of being a married volunteer 26-30 years old and being of lower income.”

Those in relationships that terminated within 6 months reported decrements in several indicators of functioning, including significant increases in alcohol use.

“Those in relationships that terminated within 6 months reported decrements in several indicators of functioning, including significant increases in alcohol use.”

Progressively fewer effects emerged among youth who were in relationships that terminated between 6 months and 1 year or between 3 and 6 months.

“In support of this prediction we found that youth who were in relationships that lasted a year or longer reported improvements in academic, psychosocial, and behavioral outcomes; and progressively fewer effects emerged among youth who were in relationships that terminated between 6 months and 1 year or between 3 and 6 months.”

• Also stated in: § DISCUSSION · plain

  “Specifically, youth in relationships that lasted for a year or more reported the largest number of improvements, with fewer effects emerging among youth in relationships that lasted from 6 to 12 months.”

Female matches were marginally more likely to terminate than those of males (p < .08).

“Nonetheless, female matches were marginally more likely to terminate than those of males ( p < .08).”

At follow-up, 60% of matches that had been made were still intact.

“At followup, 60% of matches that had been made were still intact.”

Unmarried volunteers aged 26-30 were 65% less likely to terminate each month than 18-to 25-year-old volunteers.

“Relative to matches with 18-to 25-year-old volunteers, unmarried volunteers aged 26-30 were 65% less likely to terminate each month, but married volunteers aged 26-30 years were 86% (exp[1.05-.43]) more likely to terminate each month.”

Matches involving higher income volunteers lasted longer than those involving lower income volunteers.

“Matches involving higher income volunteers lasted longer than those involving lower income volunteers.”

• Also stated in: § DISCUSSION · hedged

  “For example, volunteers with higher incomes tended to be in matches that lasted longer than lower income volunteers.”

When potential self-selection biases were taken into account, the basic pattern of effects remained.

“When potential self-selection biases were taken into account, the basic pattern of effects remained.”

• Also stated in: § DISCUSSION · plain

  “It should be noted, however, that the basic pattern of findings held even after controlling for potential self-selection biases.”

Adolescents who had been referred for services were most likely to be in early terminating relationships.

“Older adolescents, as well as those who had been referred for services or had sustained emotional, sexual or physical abuse, were most likely to be in early terminating relationships, as were married volunteers aged 26-30 and those with lower incomes.Several dyadic factors were also found to be related to earlier terminations, including race, gender, and relationship quality.”

Gender was related to earlier terminations.

“Older adolescents, as well as those who had been referred for services or had sustained emotional, sexual or physical abuse, were most likely to be in early terminating relationships, as were married volunteers aged 26-30 and those with lower incomes.Several dyadic factors were also found to be related to earlier terminations, including race, gender, and relationship quality.”

Married volunteers aged 26-30 were most likely to be in early terminating relationships.

“Older adolescents, as well as those who had been referred for services or had sustained emotional, sexual or physical abuse, were most likely to be in early terminating relationships, as were married volunteers aged 26-30 and those with lower incomes.Several dyadic factors were also found to be related to earlier terminations, including race, gender, and relationship quality.”

A 25% decrease in the average hazard rate would increase the length of the match to 22 months.

“A 25% increase in this average hazard rate would decrease the length of the match to 13.3 months, whereas a 50% increase would decrease the length of the match to 11.1 months.A 25% decrease in the average hazard rate would increase the length of the match to 22 months.”

• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: All matches experience a probability of breaking up each period.

Several factors associated with the mentors' characteristics were also predictive of relationship duration.

“Several factors associated with the mentors' characteristics were also predictive of relationship duration.”

Proportional hazard rate analyses revealed several youth, volunteer, and dyadic characteristics that were associated with higher termination rates.

“Proportional hazard rate analyses revealed several youth, volunteer, and dyadic characteristics that were associated with higher termination rates.”

A 50% increase in the average hazard rate would decrease the length of the match to 11.1 months.

“A 25% increase in this average hazard rate would decrease the length of the match to 13.3 months, whereas a 50% increase would decrease the length of the match to 11.1 months.A 25% decrease in the average hazard rate would increase the length of the match to 22 months.”

• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: All matches experience a probability of breaking up each period.

Older adolescents were most likely to be in early terminating relationships.

“Older adolescents, as well as those who had been referred for services or had sustained emotional, sexual or physical abuse, were most likely to be in early terminating relationships, as were married volunteers aged 26-30 and those with lower incomes.Several dyadic factors were also found to be related to earlier terminations, including race, gender, and relationship quality.”

The volunteers' and adolescents' age did not interact with each other in their prediction of relationship duration.

“The volunteers' and adolescents' age did not interact with each other in their prediction of relationship duration.”

Because such processes are complex and may involve changes in internal representations of relationships, the benefits of mentoring emerge over a relatively long period of time.

“Because such processes are complex and, in some instances, may involve changes in internal representations of relationships, it is likely that the benefits of mentoring emerge over a relatively long period of time (Rhodes et al., in press).”

• cites Rhodes et al., in pressNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Approximately half of all youth mentoring relationships dissolve after only a few months.

“Indeed, approximately half of all youth mentoring relationships dissolve after only a few months, often as the result of the volunteers feeling overwhelmed, burned out, or unappreciated (Freedman, 1993;Hamilton & Hamilton, 1990;Styles & Morrow, 1992).”

• cites Freedman, 1993Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Hamilton & Hamilton, 1990Not checked — no full text of the source
• cites Styles & Morrow, 1992Not checked — no full text of the source

In some instances, adolescents may terminate relationships in response to what they perceive as unsupportive, disappointing, or overly demanding mentors.

“In some instances, adolescents may terminate relationships in response to what they perceive as unsupportive, disappointing, or overly demanding mentors (Styles & Morrow, 1992).”

• cites Styles & Morrow, 1992Not checked — no full text of the source

Early terminations of youth mentoring relationships often result from volunteers feeling overwhelmed, burned out, or unappreciated.

“Indeed, approximately half of all youth mentoring relationships dissolve after only a few months, often as the result of the volunteers feeling overwhelmed, burned out, or unappreciated (Freedman, 1993;Hamilton & Hamilton, 1990;Styles & Morrow, 1992).”

• cites Freedman, 1993Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Hamilton & Hamilton, 1990Not checked — no full text of the source
• cites Styles & Morrow, 1992Not checked — no full text of the source

Evaluations of volunteer mentoring programs provide evidence of positive influences on adolescent developmental outcomes, including improvements in academic achievement, self-concept, prosocial behavior, and interpersonal relationships.

“Evaluations of volunteer mentoring programs provide evidence of positive influences on adolescent developmental outcomes, including improvements in academic achievement, self-concept, prosocial behavior, and interpersonal relationships (Davidson, Redner, Blakely, Mitchell, & Esmhoff, 1987;DuBois & Neville, 1997;Grossman & Tierney;1998;LoSciuto, Rajala, Townsend, & Taylor, 1996).”

• cites Davidson, Redner, Blakely, Mitchell, & Esmhoff, 1987 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites DuBois & Neville, 1997Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Grossman & Tierney;1998 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

By serving as supportive models of success, mentors may directly stimulate improvements in adolescents' self-perceptions, attitudes, and behaviors.

“By serving as supportive models of success, mentors may directly stimulate improvements in adolescents' self-perceptions, attitudes, and behaviors (Bandura, 1969;Hamilton & Hamilton, 1990;Klaw & Rhodes, 1995;Taylor, 1989;Walker & Freedman, 1996).”

• cites Bandura, 1969Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Hamilton & Hamilton, 1990Not checked — no full text of the source
• cites Klaw & Rhodes, 1995 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

The only systematic difference between the treatment and control group youth at baseline was that the treatment youth had the opportunity to be matched with mentors.

“The only systematic difference between the treatment and control group youth at baseline was that the treatment youth had the opportunity to be matched with mentors.”

Enduring positive relationships may modify adolescents' general perceptions of relationships.

“Additionally, enduring positive relationships may modify adolescents' general perceptions of relationships (Bowlby, 1982;Belsky & Cassidy, 1994;Sroufe, 1995).”

• cites Bowlby, 1982 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Belsky & Cassidy, 1994 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Sroufe, 1995Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

There is some evidence to suggest that mentors may affect change through their positive influence on the more proximal relationships in adolescents' lives.

“Additionally, there is some evidence to suggest that mentors may affect change through their positive influence on the more proximal relationships in adolescents' lives.”

When such adolescents encounter cues that relationships will not proceed, however minimal or ambiguous, they may readily perceive intentional rejection from their mentors.

“When such adolescents encounter cues that relationships will not proceed, however minimal or ambiguous, they may readily perceive intentional rejection from their mentors (Downey & Feldman, 1996;Downey, Lebolt, Rincon, & Freitas, 1998).”

• cites Downey & Feldman, 1996 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Downey, Lebolt, Rincon, & Freitas, 1998 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Modest effect sizes may also be an artifact of evaluation designs that combine relationships of varying duration into a single treatment group.

“Modest effects sizes may also be an artifact of evaluation designs that combine relationships of varying duration into a single treatment group.”

Mentors with higher incomes probably have greater flexibility in their work schedules and can more readily afford amenities, such as child care and personal transportation, that increase the convenience of sustained contact.

“Nonetheless, mentors with higher incomes probably have greater flexibility in their work schedules and can more readily afford amenities, such as child care and personal transportation, that increase the convenience of sustained contact (Miller, Powell, & Seltzer, 1990).”

• cites Miller, Powell, & Seltzer, 1990 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Using the average hazard rate, if the match of a younger adolescent lasted for two years, then the match of a similar, but older, adolescent would last for a year and a quarter.

“Using the average hazard rate, this would imply that if the match of a younger adolescent lasted for two years, then the match of a similar, but older, adolescent would last for a year and a quarter.”

Supportive relationships have potential for helping adolescents to transcend severe childhood rejection.

“Given the potential of supportive relationships for helping adolescents to transcend severe childhood rejection (Egeland et al., 1988;Rhodes et al., in press), caseworkers should work closely with such dyads to move them beyond the initial, challenging stages of the relationship.”

• cites Egeland et al., 1988Not matched

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• cites Rhodes et al., in pressNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

If volunteers were able to form good relationships with their youth, their marital status had little effect on the ultimate length of the match.

“In other words, if volunteers were able to form good relationships with their youth, their marital status had little effect on the ultimate length of the match.”

Ordinary least-squares techniques would have produced biased inferences about factors associated with the longevity of matches.

“Given that the completed length of match is not observed for all sample members (i.e., some of the data are censured), ordinary least-squares techniques would have produced biased inferences about factors associated with the longevity of matches.”

The completed length of match is not observed for all sample members (i.e., some of the data are censored).

“Given that the completed length of match is not observed for all sample members (i.e., some of the data are censured), ordinary least-squares techniques would have produced biased inferences about factors associated with the longevity of matches.”

No other studies have identified income as a predictor of relationship duration.

“Although the positive impact of income on initial levels of voluntary participation has been confirmed in many previous studies (Wilson & Musick, 1997), no other studies have identified this variable as a predictor of relationship duration.”

• cites Wilson & Musick, 1997 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

The effects of the adults' gender could not be separated from that of the youth.

“BBBS makes no cross-gender matches and so the effects of the adults' gender could not be separated from that of the youth.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: BBBS makes no cross-gender matches.

Proportional hazard rate analysis is an appropriate analytical technique for analyzing censored data.

“An appropriate analytical technique for analyzing censured data is proportional hazard rate analysis (Cox, 1972;Kalbfreisch & Prentice, 1980).”

• cites Cox, 1972 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Kalbfreisch & Prentice, 1980Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

The findings regarding early terminations are consistent with previous work which has demonstrated the particular vulnerabilities of youth to relationship disruption.

“The findings regarding early terminations are consistent with previous work which has demonstrated the particular vulnerabilities of youth to relationship disruption (Downey et al., 1998).”

• cites Downey et al., 1998 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

One can correct for potential selection bias by substituting an instrument for length of match that is similar to the observed length of match but purged of the unwanted correlation with the error term.

“One can correct for this potential selection bias by substituting an instrument for length of match that is similar to the observed length of match but which is purged of the unwanted correlation with the error term.”

Maltreated youth frequently manifest highly problematic attachment relationships with their parents and other adults.

“Indeed, maltreated youth frequently manifest highly problematic attachment relationships with their parents and other adults (e.g., Carlson, Cicchetti, Barnett, & Braunwald, 1989) and may find it relatively difficult to establish close, supportive relationship with mentors.”

• cites Carlson, Cicchetti, Barnett, & Braunwald, 1989 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

There were no baseline differences between the treatment group and the controls on any measures, including indices of psychosocial adjustment.

“Moreover, there were no baseline differences between the treatment group and the controls on any measures, including indices of psychosocial adjustment.”

This lag may help to explain the relatively modest effects that have been reported in mentoring program evaluations that occur before matches have been meeting for at least a year.

“This lag may help to explain the relatively modest effects that have been reported in mentoring program evaluations that occur before matches have been meeting for at least a year (see Abbott, Meredith, Self-Kelly, & Davis, 1997;Freedman, 1993).”

• cites Abbott, Meredith, Self-Kelly, & Davis, 1997 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Freedman, 1993Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

The estimates produced in the second stage of the regression are considered consistent estimates of the effect of relationship length on the outcomes.

“Thus, the estimates produced in the second stage of the regression are considered consistent estimates of the effect of relationship length on the outcomes.”

• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: The predicted value of length-of-match is free of correlated error and unrelated to youth outcomes.

This risk can be overcome through the exercise of greater matching precision.

“It appears, however, that this risk can be overcome through the exercise of greater matching precision.”