Cognitive impairment in preclinical Alzheimer's disease: a meta-analysis
Abstract
To determine the size of the impairment across different cognitive domains in preclinical Alzheimer's disease (AD), a meta-analysis based on 47 studies involving 9,097 controls and 1,207 preclinical AD cases was conducted. There were marked preclinical deficits in global cognitive ability, episodic memory, perceptual speed, and executive functioning; somewhat smaller deficits in verbal ability, visuospatial skill, and attention; and no preclinical impairment in primary memory. Younger age (< 75 years) and shorter follow-up intervals (< 3 years) were associated with larger effect sizes for both global cognitive ability and episodic memory. For global cognitive ability, studies that used population-based sampling yielded larger effect sizes; for episodic memory, larger differences were seen in studies that preidentified groups in terms of baseline cognitive impairment. Within episodic memory, delayed testing and recall-based assessment resulted in the largest effect sizes. The authors conclude that deficits in multiple cognitive domains are characteristic of AD several years before clinical diagnosis. The generalized nature of the deficit is consistent with recent observations that multiple brain structures and functions are affected long before the AD diagnosis.
AI snapshot
Written from the paper’s full text.
TL;DR
This meta-analysis of 47 studies found that preclinical Alzheimer’s disease is associated with deficits across multiple cognitive domains, especially global cognitive ability, episodic memory, perceptual speed, and executive functioning. The authors conclude that cognitive impairment is generalized several years before clinical diagnosis, though case–control distributions still overlap substantially.
Key findings
- Across 47 studies (1,207 preclinical AD cases, 9,097 controls), significant preclinical deficits were found for global cognitive ability (*d* = 1.19), episodic memory (*d* = 1.03), perceptual speed (*d* = 1.11), executive functioning (*d* = 1.07), verbal ability (*d* = 0.79), visuospatial skill (*d* = 0.64), and attention (*d* = 0.62); primary memory showed no deficit (*d* = 0.00).
- For global cognitive ability and episodic memory, larger effect sizes were associated with younger age (< 75 years) and shorter follow-up intervals (< 3 years); population-based sampling yielded larger effects for global cognitive ability, and preidentified cognitive impairment yielded larger effects for episodic memory.
- Within episodic memory, delayed testing (*d* = 1.23) produced larger effects than immediate testing (*d* = 0.96), recall (*d* = 1.02) larger than recognition (*d* = 0.79), and verbal materials (*d* = 1.05) somewhat larger than nonverbal materials (*d* = 0.96).
- Overlap between preclinical AD cases and controls ranged from 39% to 62% for domains with reliable group differences, indicating substantial distributional overlap despite large average effects.
Methods
- Meta-analysis of published English-language studies from January 1985 to February 2003 identified through MEDLINE and PsycINFO, including studies where participants were dementia-free at baseline and some received an AD diagnosis at follow-up using standardized criteria.
- Data from 47 independent studies were analyzed using random-effects procedures based on Hedges and Olkin; effect sizes (*g*, *d*) represented standardized baseline cognitive differences between incident AD cases and controls, weighted by sample size.
- Cognitive tests were grouped into eight domains: global cognitive ability, episodic memory, executive functioning, verbal ability, visuospatial skill, attention, perceptual speed, and primary memory; moderator analyses examined age, follow-up interval, sampling method, baseline cognitive status, and episodic memory task characteristics.
Limitations
- The paper states that diagnostic precision may have led to occasional failures to identify mildly impaired persons as early AD cases, potentially overestimating cognitive differences; few studies had information on all or most ability domains, and effect-size estimates for some domains were based on far fewer participants than others.
- The paper also states that moderator variables could not be assessed simultaneously and may be confounded, follow-up intervals could not be partitioned into shorter periods, and classification of some outcome measures into cognitive domains was ambiguous.
- Evident from the text: the meta-analysis used univariate effect sizes for single-task variables, so it could not evaluate combined prediction models across cognitive domains, and the authors note this likely makes the analysis a conservative test of case–control differences.
Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
0 of 44 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged
- Findingown data§ Brent J. Small · p. 1
Preclinical Alzheimer's disease cases show marked deficits in global cognitive ability compared with controls.
“There were marked preclinical deficits in global cognitive ability, episodic memory, perceptual speed, and executive functioning; somewhat smaller deficits in verbal ability, visuospatial skill, and attention; and no preclinical impairment in primary memory.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data§ Brent J. Small · p. 1
Preclinical Alzheimer's disease cases show no impairment in primary memory compared with controls.
“There were marked preclinical deficits in global cognitive ability, episodic memory, perceptual speed, and executive functioning; somewhat smaller deficits in verbal ability, visuospatial skill, and attention; and no preclinical impairment in primary memory.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data§ Brent J. Small · p. 1
Within episodic memory, recall-based assessment results in the largest effect sizes in preclinical Alzheimer's disease.
“Within episodic memory, delayed testing and recall-based assessment resulted in the largest effect sizes.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data§ Brent J. Small · p. 1
Preclinical Alzheimer's disease cases show marked deficits in executive functioning compared with controls.
“There were marked preclinical deficits in global cognitive ability, episodic memory, perceptual speed, and executive functioning; somewhat smaller deficits in verbal ability, visuospatial skill, and attention; and no preclinical impairment in primary memory.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data§ Brent J. Small · p. 1
For global cognitive ability, studies using population-based sampling yield larger effect sizes in preclinical Alzheimer's disease.
“For global cognitive ability, studies that used population-based sampling yielded larger effect sizes; for episodic memory, larger differences were seen in studies that preidentified groups in terms of baseline cognitive impairment.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
- Findingown data§ Brent J. Small · p. 1
Shorter follow-up intervals (<3 years) are associated with larger effect sizes for episodic memory in preclinical Alzheimer's disease.
“Younger age ( < 75 years) and shorter follow-up intervals ( < 3 years) were associated with larger effect sizes for both global cognitive ability and episodic memory.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data§ Brent J. Small · p. 1
Preclinical Alzheimer's disease cases show somewhat smaller deficits in visuospatial skill compared with controls.
“There were marked preclinical deficits in global cognitive ability, episodic memory, perceptual speed, and executive functioning; somewhat smaller deficits in verbal ability, visuospatial skill, and attention; and no preclinical impairment in primary memory.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data§ Brent J. Small · p. 1
Preclinical Alzheimer's disease cases show somewhat smaller deficits in attention compared with controls.
“There were marked preclinical deficits in global cognitive ability, episodic memory, perceptual speed, and executive functioning; somewhat smaller deficits in verbal ability, visuospatial skill, and attention; and no preclinical impairment in primary memory.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data§ Brent J. Small · p. 1
Preclinical Alzheimer's disease cases show marked deficits in perceptual speed compared with controls.
“There were marked preclinical deficits in global cognitive ability, episodic memory, perceptual speed, and executive functioning; somewhat smaller deficits in verbal ability, visuospatial skill, and attention; and no preclinical impairment in primary memory.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data§ Brent J. Small · p. 1
Younger age (<75 years) is associated with larger effect sizes for episodic memory in preclinical Alzheimer's disease.
“Younger age ( < 75 years) and shorter follow-up intervals ( < 3 years) were associated with larger effect sizes for both global cognitive ability and episodic memory.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data§ Brent J. Small · p. 1
Preclinical Alzheimer's disease cases show somewhat smaller deficits in verbal ability compared with controls.
“There were marked preclinical deficits in global cognitive ability, episodic memory, perceptual speed, and executive functioning; somewhat smaller deficits in verbal ability, visuospatial skill, and attention; and no preclinical impairment in primary memory.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data§ Brent J. Small · p. 1
For episodic memory, studies that preidentified groups by baseline cognitive impairment yield larger differences in preclinical Alzheimer's disease.
“For global cognitive ability, studies that used population-based sampling yielded larger effect sizes; for episodic memory, larger differences were seen in studies that preidentified groups in terms of baseline cognitive impairment.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data§ Brent J. Small · p. 1
Within episodic memory, delayed testing results in the largest effect sizes in preclinical Alzheimer's disease.
“Within episodic memory, delayed testing and recall-based assessment resulted in the largest effect sizes.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data§ Brent J. Small · p. 1
Younger age (<75 years) is associated with larger effect sizes for global cognitive ability in preclinical Alzheimer's disease.
“Younger age ( < 75 years) and shorter follow-up intervals ( < 3 years) were associated with larger effect sizes for both global cognitive ability and episodic memory.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data§ Brent J. Small · p. 1
Shorter follow-up intervals (<3 years) are associated with larger effect sizes for global cognitive ability in preclinical Alzheimer's disease.
“Younger age ( < 75 years) and shorter follow-up intervals ( < 3 years) were associated with larger effect sizes for both global cognitive ability and episodic memory.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data§ Brent J. Small · p. 1
Preclinical Alzheimer's disease cases show marked deficits in episodic memory compared with controls.
“There were marked preclinical deficits in global cognitive ability, episodic memory, perceptual speed, and executive functioning; somewhat smaller deficits in verbal ability, visuospatial skill, and attention; and no preclinical impairment in primary memory.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingnone given§ Discussion · p. 7
Effect sizes were larger when incident AD cases were examined less than 3 years before diagnosis than when baseline assessment occurred 3 or more years before diagnosis.
“Not surprisingly, effect sizes were larger when the incident AD cases were examined less than 3 years before diagnosis than when baseline assessment occurred 3 or more years before diagnosis.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data§ Effect Sizes Within Episodic Memory · p. 5
Delayed testing resulted in larger group differences than immediate testing in episodic memory.
“Specifically, delayed testing and recallbased retrieval resulted in larger group differences.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data§ Discussion · p. 5
The group difference for primary memory was nonexistent (d = 0.00).
“whereas it was nonexistent for primary memory ( d = 0.00).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data§ Search Strategy and Selection Criteria · p. 2
The meta-analysis included 47 studies with 1,207 preclinical Alzheimer's disease cases and 9,097 controls.
“Thus, a total of 47 studies contributed data to the meta-analysis, comprising a total of 1,207 preclinical AD cases and 9,097 controls.”
- Also stated in: § Brent J. Small · p. 1 · plain
“a meta-analysis based on 47 studies involving 9,097 controls and 1,207 preclinical AD cases was conducted.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Also stated in: § Brent J. Small · p. 1 · plain
- Findingnone given§ Discussion · p. 7
The degree of impairment was quite sizable also for studies that used longer retest intervals, with d values of 1.12 and 0.76 for global cognitive ability and episodic memory, respectively.
“However, note that the degree of impairment was quite sizable also for studies that used longer retest intervals, with d values of 1.12 and 0.76 for global cognitive ability and episodic memory, respectively.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingreasoning§ Discussion · p. 7
There was a trend for population-based sampling to reveal larger effect sizes for episodic memory.
“There was a trend in the same direction for episodic memory.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingreasoning§ Discussion · p. 7
Within episodic memory, effect sizes were larger for recall than for recognition.
“Second, effect sizes were larger for recall than for recognition.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data§ Overall Effect Sizes · p. 5
The Q_W statistic revealed significant heterogeneity of effect sizes for all domains except executive functioning.
“The Q W statistic revealed significant heterogeneity of effect sizes for all domains except executive functioning.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingreasoning§ Discussion · p. 7
For episodic memory, larger effect sizes were observed for MCI-type studies.
“For global cognitive ability, the confidence intervals for the two types of studies were overlapping, whereas for episodic memory, larger effect sizes were observed for MCI-type studies.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data§ Overall Effect Sizes · p. 5
Even for global cognitive ability, episodic memory, perceptual speed, and executive functioning, almost half of the distributions between control and incident AD groups overlapped.
“Of special note here is that even for global cognitive ability, episodic memory, perceptual speed, and executive functioning, almost half of the distributions between the control and incident AD groups overlapped.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingreasoning§ Discussion · p. 7
Within episodic memory, the effect size was larger for delayed than for immediate testing of memory.
“First, the effect size was larger for delayed than for immediate testing of memory.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data§ Discussion · p. 5
The confidence intervals around the effect sizes overlapped for episodic memory, executive functioning, and perceptual speed.
“The confidence intervals around the effect sizes overlapped for episodic memory, executive functioning, and perceptual speed.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data§ Influence of Study Characteristics on Effect Sizes · p. 5
For episodic memory, studies in which participants were preselected on the basis of cognitive impairment at baseline yielded larger effect sizes.
“Finally, for episodic memory, studies in which participants were preselected on the basis of cognitive impairment at baseline yielded larger effect sizes.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data§ Influence of Study Characteristics on Effect Sizes · p. 5
For both global cognitive ability and episodic memory, shorter follow-up intervals were associated with larger differences between incident AD and control groups.
“For both global cognitive ability and episodic memory, age and follow-up interval were associated with the magnitude of group differences. Specifically, younger age and shorter follow-up intervals resulted in larger differences between the incident AD and control groups.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data§ Overall Effect Sizes · p. 5
The incident AD group exhibited statistically significant deficits across all cognitive domains except primary memory.
“The incident AD group exhibited statistically significant deficits across all domains except primary memory.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data§ Discussion · p. 7
For global cognitive ability, the confidence intervals for the two types of studies were overlapping.
“For global cognitive ability, the confidence intervals for the two types of studies were overlapping, whereas for episodic memory, larger effect sizes were observed for MCI-type studies.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingreasoning§ Discussion · p. 7
For global cognitive ability, studies with population-based sampling revealed larger effect sizes than studies with convenience sampling.
“For global cognitive ability, studies in which participants were recruited through population-based sampling revealed larger effect sizes than did studies that used convenience sampling (e.g., clinical settings, advertisements).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data§ Discussion · p. 8
Overlap scores ranged from 39% to 62% for task domains yielding reliable group differences.
“Although the present meta-analysis revealed generally large effect sizes, the overlap in cognitive performance between cases and controls was quite substantial, with overlap scores ranging from 39% to 62% for those task domains yielding reliable group differences.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data§ Discussion · p. 9
For follow-up intervals over 3 years, the effect size was larger for global cognitive ability (d = 1.12) than for episodic memory (d = 0.76).
“However, it may be noted that the effect size was larger for global cognitive ability ( d = 1.12) than for episodic memory ( d = 0.76) for follow-up intervals over 3 years.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingnone given§ Discussion · p. 9
The magnitude of the preclinical cognitive impairment was affected relatively little by various study and task characteristics.
“Finally, we would like to highlight the finding that the magnitude of the preclinical cognitive impairment was affected relatively little by various study and task characteristics.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The standardized diagnostic instruments used across the included studies yield comparable diagnoses of Alzheimer's disease.
- Rests on an assumption: The classification of outcome measures into cognitive domains is valid enough for pooling effect sizes across studies.
- Findingreasoning§ Discussion · p. 7
There was a trend for larger effect sizes for verbal than for nonverbal materials in episodic memory.
“There was also a trend in the direction of larger effect sizes for verbal than for nonverbal materials.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data§ Discussion · p. 8
Despite influences of study and task characteristics, the effect sizes for global cognitive ability and episodic memory were uniformly large.
“However, despite the observed influences of study and task characteristics, it is important to note that the effect sizes for global cognitive ability and episodic memory were uniformly large.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data§ Discussion · p. 9
The current meta-analysis provides compelling evidence that impairment in multiple cognitive domains several years before clinical diagnosis is characteristic of Alzheimer's disease.
“In summary, the current meta-analysis has provided compelling evidence that impairment in multiple cognitive domains several years before clinical diagnosis is characteristic of AD.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The standardized diagnostic instruments used across the included studies yield comparable diagnoses of Alzheimer's disease.
- Rests on an assumption: The classification of outcome measures into cognitive domains is valid enough for pooling effect sizes across studies.
- Premisecitation§ Brent J. Small · p. 1
Tasks assessing episodic memory may be particularly effective at identifying at-risk individuals for Alzheimer's disease.
“Although multiple cognitive domains are affected in preclinical AD, several studies have suggested that tasks assessing episodic memory (e.g., word recall, face recognition) may be particularly effective at identifying at-risk individuals (Elias et al., 2000; B. J. Small, Herlitz, et al., 1997; Tierney, Szalai, Snow, Fisher, Nores, et al., 1996).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked- cites Elias et al., 2000
Not checked in the free run.
- cites B. J. Small, Herlitz, et al., 1997
Not checked in the free run.
- cites Tierney et al., 1996
Not checked in the free run.
- Premisecitation§ Brent J. Small · p. 1
Individuals who will develop Alzheimer's disease exhibit cognitive deficits several years before a clinical diagnosis of dementia.
“This is evidenced by a performance decrement at a baseline assessment point among persons who are currently without dementia but who will receive an AD diagnosis after a followup interval.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked- cites Chen et al., 2001
Not checked in the free run.
- cites Elias et al., 2000
Not checked in the free run.
- cites B. J. Small et al., 2000
Not checked in the free run.
- Interpretationown data§ Brent J. Small · p. 1
Deficits in multiple cognitive domains are characteristic of Alzheimer's disease several years before clinical diagnosis.
“The authors conclude that deficits in multiple cognitive domains are characteristic of AD several years before clinical diagnosis.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation§ Brent J. Small · p. 1
Brain structures critical to episodic remembering, such as the hippocampus and neighboring regions, show pathological alterations long before clinical diagnosis of Alzheimer's disease.
“These observations are consistent with findings that brain structures known to be critical to episodic remembering, such as the hippocampus and neighboring regions (Nyberg, McIntosh, Houle, Nilsson, & Tulving, 1996; Vargha-Khadem et al., 1997), show pathological alterations long before clinical diagnosis (Braak & Braak, 1995; Fox et al., 1996; S. A. Small, Perara, DeLaPaz, Mayeux, & Stern, 1999).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked- cites Braak & Braak, 1995
Not checked in the free run.
- cites Fox et al., 1996 source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites S. A. Small et al., 1999
Not checked in the free run.
- Premisecitation§ Brent J. Small · p. 2
Meta-analytic techniques give individual studies differential weights depending on sample size.
“Another advantage is that individual studies are given differential weights depending on sample size.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites Cohn & Becker, 2003
Not checked in the free run.
- cites Hedges & Olkin, 1985
Not checked in the free run.
- Interpretationreasoning§ Brent J. Small · p. 1
The generalized nature of the preclinical deficit is consistent with observations that multiple brain structures and functions are affected long before Alzheimer's disease diagnosis.
“The generalized nature of the deficit is consistent with recent observations that multiple brain structures and functions are affected long before the AD diagnosis.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Interpretationreasoning§ Discussion · p. 5
The large effect size for global cognitive ability does not imply that each cognitive domain represented in global assessment instruments such as the MMSE is equally impaired.
“However, the large effect size obtained for this category does not imply that each cognitive domain represented in global assessment instruments such as the MMSE is equally impaired.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Premisecitation§ Discussion · p. 7
Categories such as MCI are rather heterogeneous.
“On the other hand, recent evidence indicates that categories such as MCI are rather heterogeneous.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites Helkala et al., 1997 source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites Palmer, Wang, Bäckman, Winblad, & Fratiglioni, 2002
Not checked in the free run.
- Premisecitation§ Search Strategy and Selection Criteria · p. 2
The year 1985 corresponds to the introduction of more systematic and reliable diagnostic criteria for Alzheimer's disease.
“The year 1985 was chosen as a starting point because it corresponds to the introduction of more systematic and reliable diagnostic criteria for AD (McKhann et al., 1984).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites McKhann et al., 1984 source
Not checked in the free run.
- Interpretationcitation§ Discussion · p. 7
The finding of larger episodic memory effect sizes for MCI-type studies was expected because episodic memory impairment constitutes a cardinal criterion for inclusion in the MCI category.
“The latter finding was expected in view of the fact that episodic memory impairment constitutes a cardinal criterion for inclusion in the MCI category (Petersen et al., 1999).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Petersen et al., 1999
Not checked in the free run.
- Premisecitation§ Discussion · p. 7
Multiple brain structures and functions in addition to those related to the medial-temporal lobe may be affected before AD diagnosis.
“Emerging evidence indicates that multiple brain structures and functions in addition to those related to the medial-temporal lobe may be affected before the AD diagnosis.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked- cites Killiany et al., 2000
Not checked in the free run.
- cites Fox et al., 2001
Not checked in the free run.
- cites van der Flier, van den Heuvel, Weverling-Rijnsburger, Bollen, et al., 2002
Not checked in the free run.
- Premisecitation§ Brent J. Small · p. 2
Pooling results from multiple studies provides more exact information about the influence of moderating variables on effect sizes.
“Finally, by pooling the results from multiple studies, it is possible to provide more exact information concerning the influence of various moderating variables on effect sizes (Cohn & Becker, 2003; Hedges & Olkin, 1985).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites Cohn & Becker, 2003
Not checked in the free run.
- cites Hedges & Olkin, 1985
Not checked in the free run.
- Interpretationown data§ Discussion · p. 5
The meta-analysis results indicate a global impairment of cognitive functioning in the preclinical phase of AD.
“The results of this meta-analysis indicate a global impairment of cognitive functioning in the preclinical phase of AD.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationown data§ Discussion · p. 5
Episodic memory does not have a unique status among categories of cognitive markers for identifying forthcoming AD.
“At the same time, these results demonstrate that episodic memory does not have a unique status among categories of cognitive markers for identifying forthcoming AD.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation§ Discussion · p. 7
Strong relationships exist between volumetric measures of the whole brain and the temporal and frontal lobes and cognitive performance in MCI and early AD.
“This point is further strengthened by recent evidence indicating strong relationships of volumetric measures of the whole brain and the temporal and frontal lobes to cognitive performance (e.g., memory, verbal skill, executive functioning) in MCI and early AD, although no relationships were observed between regional brain damage and impairment of specific cognitive functions (van der Flier, van de”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites van der Flier, van den Heuvel, WeverlingRijnsburger, Split, et al., 2002
Not checked in the free run.
- Premisecitation§ Discussion · p. 7
No relationships were observed between regional brain damage and impairment of specific cognitive functions in MCI and early AD.
“This point is further strengthened by recent evidence indicating strong relationships of volumetric measures of the whole brain and the temporal and frontal lobes to cognitive performance (e.g., memory, verbal skill, executive functioning) in MCI and early AD, although no relationships were observed between regional brain damage and impairment of specific cognitive functions (van der Flier, van de”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites van der Flier, van den Heuvel, WeverlingRijnsburger, Split, et al., 2002
Not checked in the free run.
- Premisecitation§ Discussion · p. 6
Conversion rates to AD over a 2.5-year interval were considerably greater for persons who exhibited deficits in episodic memory and some other cognitive domain at baseline than for persons who had isolated memory impairment.
“The finding of a multiple cognitive system breakdown is consistent with observations that conversion rates to AD over a 2.5year interval were considerably greater for persons who exhibited deficits in episodic memory and some other cognitive domain (e.g., verbal ability, visuospatial skill) at baseline than for persons who had isolated memory impairment (Bozoki, Giordani, Heidebrink, Berent, &”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Bozoki, Giordani, Heidebrink, Berent, & Foster, 2001
Not checked in the free run.
- Interpretationown data§ Discussion · p. 5
The only domain that deviated markedly from the pattern of clear preclinical impairment was primary memory.
“The only domain that deviated markedly from the pattern of clear preclinical impairment was that of primary memory.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Study design and conductnone given§ Discussion · p. 8
The meta-analysis included only studies that used standardized diagnostic instruments (e.g., DSM-III-R, DSM-IV, ICD-10, NINCDS-ADRDA criteria).
“We included only studies in which standardized diagnostic instruments were used (e.g., DSM-III-R , DSM-IV , ICD-10 , NINCDS-ADRDA criteria).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Study design and conductown data§ Discussion · p. 9
The meta-analysis was unable to assess the influence of moderator variables simultaneously.
“Another consequence of the limited database is that we were unable to assess the influence of the moderator variables simultaneously.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Interpretationreasoning§ Discussion · p. 8
These facts hamper the utility of cognitive tests in identifying persons eligible for pharmacological or other interventions designed to slow down the disease process.
“These facts obviously hamper the utility of cognitive tests in identifying persons eligible for pharmacological or other interventions designed to slow down the disease process.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Interpretationreasoning§ Discussion · p. 7
The moderating effects observed for episodic memory suggest that performance deficits in preclinical AD are exacerbated with increasing cognitive demands.
“In general, then, the moderating effects observed for episodic memory suggest that performance deficits in preclinical AD are exacerbated with increasing cognitive demands.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Study design and conductreasoning§ Discussion · p. 9
Analyses of moderator variables in the meta-analysis were restricted to global cognitive ability and episodic memory.
“As a result of these differences, the analyses of moderator variables were restricted to global cognitive ability and episodic memory, and it was not possible to examine systematically whether effect sizes varied across cognitive domains depending on the time between baseline assessment and diagnosis.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Study design and conductreasoning§ Discussion · p. 9
It was not possible in the meta-analysis to examine systematically whether effect sizes varied across cognitive domains depending on the time between baseline assessment and diagnosis.
“it was not possible to examine systematically whether effect sizes varied across cognitive domains depending on the time between baseline assessment and diagnosis.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Study design and conductreasoning§ Discussion · p. 9
The present analysis is not informative regarding the onset of decline for different cognitive domains.
“the present analysis is not informative regarding the onset of decline for different cognitive domains.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation§ Discussion · p. 8
In research settings comparable to those in the meta-analysis, clinical diagnosis of Alzheimer's disease has high accuracy, around .90 when verified against autopsy in clinical and community samples.
“Recent evidence suggests that in research settings comparable to those represented in the meta-analysis, accuracy of the clinical diagnosis is high. Specifically, a diagnostic accuracy around .90 has been reported in both clinical (e.g., Salmon et al., 2002) and community-based (e.g., Massoud et al., 1999) samples when verified against autopsy data.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites Salmon et al., 2002 source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites Massoud et al., 1999
Not checked in the free run.
- Interpretationreasoning§ Discussion · p. 9
The generality of the cognitive impairment observed in the meta-analysis is highly consistent with recent observations that numerous brain structures and functions are affected prior to Alzheimer's disease diagnosis.
“The generality of the cognitive impairment observed is highly consistent with recent observations that numerous brain structures and functions are affected prior to the AD diagnosis.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Premisecitation§ Discussion · p. 8
These improvers had no increased risk of being diagnosed with AD at a subsequent follow-up examination.
“It is important to note that these improvers had no increased risk of being diagnosed with AD at a subsequent follow-up examination.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Study design and conductreasoning§ Discussion · p. 8
The meta-analysis provides a rather conservative test of differences between cases and controls because effect sizes were assessed in a univariate fashion.
“Having said that, we should note that the meta-analysis reported in this article provides a rather conservative test of differences between cases and controls in the sense that effect sizes were assessed in a univariate fashion (i.e., d values were estimated for single-task variables).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Study design and conductown data§ Discussion · p. 9
Among the studies included in the meta-analysis, few had information on all or even most of the targeted ability domains.
“Second, among the studies included in the analysis few had information on all, or even most, of the ability domains targeted.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Study design and conductreasoning§ Discussion · p. 8
Occasional failures to identify mildly impaired persons as early Alzheimer's disease cases at baseline assessment may have overestimated the cognitive differences between preclinical Alzheimer's disease cases and controls.
“Nonetheless, occasional failures to identify mildly impaired persons as early AD cases at baseline assessment may have resulted in an overestimation of the cognitive differences between preclinical AD cases and controls.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Interpretationcitation§ Discussion · p. 9
Preclinical cognitive impairment is not isolated to Alzheimer's disease.
“Thus, preclinical cognitive impairment is not isolated to AD.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Study design and conductnone given§ Discussion · p. 9
The existing database does not allow partitioning the length of the follow-up period into shorter time intervals.
“Further, the existing database does not allow for partitioning the length of the follow-up period into shorter time intervals.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation§ Discussion · p. 9
There is emerging evidence of a preclinical period with cognitive deficits in other dementing disorders, such as vascular dementia, frontotemporal dementia, and Huntington's disease.
“there is also emerging evidence of a preclinical period with cognitive deficits in other dementing disorders, such as vascular dementia (e.g., Ingles, Wentzel, Fisk, & Rockwood, 2002; Jonsson Laukka, Jones, Small, Fratiglioni, & Ba ¨ckman, 2004), frontotemporal dementia (Geschwind et al., 2001), and Huntington's disease (Lawrence et al., 1998; Siemers et al., 1996).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked- cites Ingles, Wentzel, Fisk, & Rockwood, 2002
Not checked in the free run.
- cites Jonsson Laukka, Jones, Small, Fratiglioni, & Ba ¨ckman, 2004
Not checked in the free run.
- cites Geschwind et al., 2001
Not checked in the free run.
- The quote only partly states this claim. 1
- May combine two claims. 21
- Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 16
The quote only partly states this claim.
Findingown data§ Effect Sizes Within Episodic Memory · p. 5Recall-based retrieval resulted in larger group differences than recognition in episodic memory.
“Specifically, delayed testing and recallbased retrieval resulted in larger group differences.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown data§ Influence of Study Characteristics on Effect Sizes · p. 5For both global cognitive ability and episodic memory, younger age was associated with larger differences between incident AD and control groups.
“For both global cognitive ability and episodic memory, age and follow-up interval were associated with the magnitude of group differences. Specifically, younger age and shorter follow-up intervals resulted in larger differences between the incident AD and control groups.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown data§ Discussion · p. 5For verbal ability, visuospatial skill, and attention, the group difference was of moderate size (d = 0.79, 0.64, and 0.62, respectively).
“For verbal ability ( d = 0.79), visuospatial skill ( d = 0.64), and attention ( d = 0.62), the group difference was of moderate size”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown data§ Overall Effect Sizes · p. 5Significant group differences were observed for verbal ability, visuospatial skill, and attention, with d values ranging from 0.62 to 0.79.
“Significant group differences were also observed for verbal ability, visuospatial skill, and attention, with d values ranging from 0.62 to 0.79.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown data§ Overall Effect Sizes · p. 5Global cognitive ability, episodic memory, perceptual speed, and executive functioning yielded the largest effect sizes, all above 1.0.
“Global cognitive ability, episodic memory, perceptual speed, and executive functioning yielded the largest effect sizes, all above 1.0.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingcitation§ Discussion · p. 5For episodic memory, executive functioning, and perceptual speed, the overall d values were 1.03, 1.07, and 1.11, respectively, reflecting large effect sizes.
“Specifically, for three of the specific cognitive domains targeted, the overall d values were 1.03 (episodic memory), 1.07 (executive functioning), and 1.11 (perceptual speed), reflecting large effect sizes according to the nomenclature of Cohen (1988).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Cohen (1988)
Not checked in the free run.
May combine two claims.
Findingreasoning§ Discussion · p. 7For both global cognitive ability and episodic memory, the degree of impairment was greater for persons younger than 75 years at baseline than for those older than 75 years.
“For both global cognitive ability and episodic memory, the degree of impairment was greater (a) for persons younger than 75 years at baseline than for those who were older than 75 years at the outset”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown data§ Discussion · p. 7For both global cognitive ability and episodic memory, the degree of impairment was greater for shorter (less than 3 years) than for longer (3+ years) follow-up periods.
“and (b) for shorter (less than 3 years) than for longer (3 + years) follow-up periods.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown data§ Discussion · p. 9In the meta-analysis, effect-size estimates for global cognitive ability and episodic memory were based on more than 7,000 participants, whereas those for executive functioning were based on fewer than 1,000 participants.
“The fact that the effect-size estimates for some cognitive domains (i.e., global cognitive ability and episodic memory) were based on more than 7,000 participants, whereas those for others (i.e., executive functioning) were based on fewer than 1,000 participants has to be taken into account when comparing effect sizes across domains.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimClassified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.
Premisecitation§ Brent J. Small · p. 2Meta-analytic techniques allow for quantitatively combining data from several studies, thereby increasing statistical power.
“Meta-analytic techniques allow for quantitatively combining data from several studies, thereby increasing the statistical power.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites Cohn & Becker, 2003
Not checked in the free run.
- cites Hedges & Olkin, 1985
Not checked in the free run.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).
Premisenone given§ Brent J. Small · p. 2The extent to which the degree of preclinical cognitive impairment in Alzheimer's disease is influenced by various study and task characteristics remains unknown.
“In addition, the extent to which the degree of preclinical cognitive impairment in AD is influenced by various study and task characteristics remains unknown.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimClassified as probably not a substantial claim.
Premisenone given§ Brent J. Small · p. 2The primacy of episodic memory as an early harbinger of Alzheimer's disease has not been assessed quantitatively using all available information.
“However, the primacy of episodic memory as an early harbinger of AD has not been assessed quantitatively using all available information.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimClassified as probably not a substantial claim.
Study design and conductnone given§ Search Strategy and Selection Criteria · p. 2All participants received an assessment of cognitive functioning at baseline.
“Second, all participants must have received an assessment of cognitive functioning at baseline.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Interpretationreasoning§ Discussion · p. 7Lower cognitive performance among controls reduces the room for further deterioration in preclinical AD.
“Lower cognitive performance among the controls obviously reduces the room for further deterioration in preclinical AD.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Study design and conductcitation§ Data Extraction and Statistical Analysis · p. 4The meta-analysis used a random-effects procedure as described by Hedges and Olkin (1985).
“The system for the meta-analysis was based on a random-effects procedure, as described by Hedges and Olkin (1985).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Hedges & Olkin, 1985
Not checked in the free run.
Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.
Study design and conductcitation§ Search Strategy and Selection Criteria · p. 2Participants had to be free of clinical dementia at baseline, with a portion receiving Alzheimer's disease diagnosis after follow-up according to standardized clinical criteria.
“First, participants had to be free of clinical dementia at a baseline assessment point, with a portion of the sample receiving, after a follow-up period, a diagnosis of AD according to standardized clinical criteria”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked- cites McKhann et al., 1984 source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites American Psychiatric Association, 1987
Not checked in the free run.
- cites American Psychiatric Association, 1994
Not checked in the free run.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Study design and conductcitation§ Data Extraction and Statistical Analysis · p. 4In studies with multiple dependent measures for a cognitive domain, an averaged effect size was calculated for the overall analysis to avoid having one study dominate the results.
“In studies in which more than one dependent measure was present for a cognitive domain (e.g., multiple tests of episodic memory), an averaged effect size was calculated for the overall analysis to avoid having one study dominate the results (Heinrichs & Zakzanis, 1998).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Heinrichs & Zakzanis, 1998
Not checked in the free run.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Study design and conductown data§ Data Extraction and Statistical Analysis · p. 4Because of the large sample sizes in this study, an alpha level of .01 was adopted as the statistical criterion.
“Because of the large sample sizes in this study, an alpha level of .01 was adopted as the statistical criterion.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimClassified as probably not a substantial claim.
Study design and conductnone given§ Search Strategy and Selection Criteria · p. 2Studies had to include sufficient statistical information to allow for effect sizes to be calculated.
“Finally, the studies had to include sufficient statistical information to allow for effect sizes to be calculated, which could include means and standard deviations, exact p values, t values, or F values, and sample sizes.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Interpretationreasoning§ Discussion · p. 7Given widespread brain affection in preclinical AD, it is not surprising that a similar extent of impairment is observed at the behavioral level.
“Thus, given that these studies indicate a rather widespread affection of brain structures and functions in preclinical AD, it should come as no surprise that a similar extent of impairment is observed at the behavioral level.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimClassified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.
Study design and conductreasoning§ Search Strategy and Selection Criteria · p. 2The inclusion of studies was determined by whether each study contributed unique information, and three studies were excluded to ensure independence of samples.
“In these cases, the inclusion of studies was determined by whether each study contributed unique information. As a result, three studies (Berger et al., 1999; Tierney, Szalai, Snow, & Fisher, 1996; Tierney, Szalai, Snow, Fisher, Tsuda, et al., 1996) were excluded. All remaining studies contributed unique information.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Interpretationown data§ Discussion · p. 5The deficit in preclinical AD generalized across several major domains of cognition, corroborated by a global cognitive ability effect size of 1.19.
“The observation that the deficit in preclinical AD generalized across several major domains of cognition was corroborated by the fact that the category of global cognitive ability showed an effect size of 1.19.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Study design and conductown data§ Overall Effect Sizes · p. 4Funnel plots for global cognitive ability and episodic memory approximated a funnel shape and provided no evidence of systematic bias within either domain.
“The distributions approximated a funnel shape, with small-sample studies scattered at the bottom of the graphs and the peak converging on the average effect size for both cognitive domains. Thus, the shape of the plots provides no evidence for systematic bias within either cognitive domain.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites Egger, Davey Smith, Schneider, & Minder, 1997 source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites Light & Pillemer, 1984
Not checked in the free run.
May combine two claims.
Interpretationreasoning§ Discussion · p. 6The largest effect sizes were observed for episodic memory, executive functioning, and speed, indicating continuity in patterns of cognitive impairment from normal aging to preclinical AD.
“Thus, the fact that the largest effect sizes were observed for these domains indicates continuity in patterns of cognitive impairment from normal aging to preclinical AD.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked- cites Bäckman, Small, & Wahlin, 2001
Not checked in the free run.
- cites Park et al., 2002
Not checked in the free run.
- cites Salthouse, 1996
Not checked in the free run.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).
Interpretationnone given§ Discussion · p. 8Indicators of other domains of functioning may be useful in identifying at-risk individuals.
“In addition, indicators of other domains of functioning may be useful in identifying at-risk individuals.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
Interpretationreasoning§ Discussion · p. 8A sizable proportion of cases had scores within normal ranges and vice versa.
“Thus, a sizable proportion of the cases had scores that fell within normal ranges and vice versa.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Premisecitation§ Discussion · p. 9Studies with assessment periods spanning several decades found clear preclinical impairment in domains other than episodic memory, such as linguistic skill and general intelligence.
“Note also that those studies that used assessment periods spanning several decades found clear preclinical impairment in domains other than episodic memory, such as linguistic skill (Snowdon et al., 1996) and general intelligence (Whalley et al., 2000).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites Snowdon et al., 1996
Not checked in the free run.
- cites Whalley et al., 2000
Not checked in the free run.
May combine two claims.
Premisecitation§ Discussion · p. 8Some persons classified as cognitively impaired at baseline remained free of AD many years later and exhibited improved cognitive performance at follow-up.
“Indeed, there is evidence that some persons classified as cognitively impaired at baseline not only remained free of AD many years later but actually exhibited improved cognitive performance at follow-up (e.g., Palmer et al., 2002).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Palmer et al., 2002
Not checked in the free run.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
Study design and conductreasoning§ Discussion · p. 9Moderator variables in the meta-analysis may be confounded; for example, studies preselected on cognitive performance may primarily use convenience sampling rather than population-based sampling.
“In some cases, moderator variables may be confounded. For example, studies in which participants are preselected on the basis of their cognitive performance may primarily use convenience sampling rather than population-based sampling.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
Interpretationreasoning§ Discussion · p. 9Measures of cognitive performance may prove useful in the early identification of at-risk individuals across a wide spectrum of dementia diseases, although the specific patterns of impairment may vary across etiologies.
“Measures of cognitive performance may prove useful in the early identification of at-risk individuals over a wide spectrum of dementia diseases, although the specific patterns of impairment may vary across etiologies.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).
Interpretationreasoning§ Discussion · p. 8Labels such as 'normal aging,' 'preclinical AD,' 'MCI,' and 'early AD' may best be viewed as instances on a dimension of brain and cognitive functioning rather than as discrete categories.
“Specifically, labels such as 'normal aging,' 'preclinical AD,' 'MCI,' and 'early AD' may best be viewed as instances on a dimension of brain and cognitive functioning rather than as discrete categories.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
Study design and conductnone given§ Discussion · p. 9Classification of outcome measures into cognitive domains is unproblematic for certain tasks (e.g., MMSE, word recall) but more ambiguous for others (e.g., verbal fluency, Digit Symbol).
“A final concern has to do with the way in which different outcome measures were classified into cognitive domains. Obviously, for certain tasks (e.g., MMSE, word recall) classification is unproblematic, whereas for others (e.g., verbal fluency, Digit Symbol) it is more ambiguous.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
Interpretationown data§ Discussion · p. 8The preclinical cognitive impairment in AD was found to generalize across several key domains of cognitive functioning, major characteristics of research studies and sample composition, and multiple aspects of episodic memory.
“Thus, the differences in effect sizes observed in this meta-analysis should not conceal the fact that the preclinical cognitive impairment in AD was found to generalize across (a) several key domains of cognitive functioning, (b) major characteristics of research studies and sample composition, and (c) multiple aspects of episodic memory.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
The paper relies on this without support.
The standardized diagnostic instruments used across the included studies yield comparable diagnoses of Alzheimer's disease.
“We included only studies in which standardized diagnostic instruments were used (e.g., DSM-III-R , DSM-IV , ICD-10 , NINCDS-ADRDA criteria).”
The paper relies on this without support.
The classification of outcome measures into cognitive domains is valid enough for pooling effect sizes across studies.
“A final concern has to do with the way in which different outcome measures were classified into cognitive domains. Obviously, for certain tasks (e.g., MMSE, word recall) classification is unproblematic, whereas for others (e.g., verbal fluency, Digit Symbol) it is more ambiguous.”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
AβPs and NFTs are present well over a decade before death.
“The interval between initial ADD clinical diagnosis and death is approximately 8 years (129), but AβPs and NFTs are present well over a decade before death (130-138).”
From Correlation of Alzheimer Disease Neuropathologic Changes With Cognitive Status: A Review of the Literature (2012) · cites this paper as [137]
In human AD, the earliest AD-related cognitive deficits present themselves as episodic memory impairment during the late preclinical phase.
“In the human disease, the earliest AD-related cognitive deficits present themselves as episodic memory impairment during the late preclinical phase of the disease (Backman et al., 2005; Twamley et al., 2006; Bondi et al., 2008).”
From Using mice to model Alzheimer's dementia: an overview of the clinical disease and the preclinical behavioral changes in 10 mouse models (2014) · cites this paper as Backman et al., 2005
Cites
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
Williams, J. B. W., & First, M. B. (2013) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/acrefore/9780199975839.013.104 · Cited by 109,841 · see citing works
Statistical Power Analysis for the Behavioral Sciences
Muller, K. E., & Cohen, J. (1989) · Technometrics · doi:10.2307/1270020 · Cited by 99,588 · see citing works
Folstein, M. F., Folstein, S. E., & McHugh, P. R. (1975) · Journal of Psychiatric Research · doi:10.1016/0022-3956(75)90026-6 · Cited by 88,282 · see citing works
Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences
Cohen, J. (1990) · Computers Environment and Urban Systems · doi:10.1016/0198-9715(90)90050-4 · Cited by 65,406 · see citing works
Bias in meta-analysis detected by a simple, graphical test
Egger, M., Smith, G. D., Schneider, M., & Minder, C. (1997) · BMJ · doi:10.1136/bmj.315.7109.629 · Cited by 56,722 · see citing works
McKhann, G., Drachman, D., Folstein, M., Katzman, R., Price, D., & Stadlan, E. M. (1984) · Neurology · doi:10.1212/wnl.34.7.939 · Cited by 27,915 · see citing works
Studies of interference in serial verbal reactions
Stroop, J. R. (1935) · Journal of Experimental Psychology · doi:10.1037/h0054651 · Cited by 18,622 · see citing works
Wasserman, S. S., Hedges, L. V., & Olkin, I. (1988) · Journal of Educational Statistics · doi:10.2307/1164953 · Cited by 10,347 · see citing works
Philosophical transactions of the Royal Society of London. B
Press, H. (1886) · Cited by 10,087 · see citing works
Mild Cognitive Impairment: Clinical Characterization and Outcome
Petersen, R. C., Smith, G. E., Waring, S. C., Ivnik, R. J., Tangalos, E. G., & Kokmen, E. (1999) · Archives of Neurology · doi:10.1001/archneur.56.3.303 · Cited by 8,980 · see citing works
VALIDITY OF THE TRAIL MAKING TEST AS AN INDICATOR OF ORGANIC BRAIN DAMAGE
Reitan, R. M. (1958) · Perceptual and Motor Skills · doi:10.2466/pms.1958.8.3.271 · Cited by 7,925 · see citing works
The processing-speed theory of adult age differences in cognition
Salthouse, T. A. (1996) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.103.3.403 · Cited by 5,568 · see citing works
Drake, M. M. (1988) · American Journal of Occupational Therapy · doi:10.5014/ajot.42.10.683b · Cited by 5,303 · see citing works
Statistical Methods for Meta-Analysis.
Freeman, P. R., Hedges, L. V., & Olkin, I. (1986) · Biometrics · doi:10.2307/2531069 · Cited by 4,832 · see citing works
Kaplan, E., Goodglass, H., Weıntraub, S., & Segal, O. (2001) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 4,378 · see citing works
Handbook of the Psychology of Aging
Schaie, K. W., Willis, S. L., Knight, B. G., & Park, D. C. (2016) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/c2012-0-07221-3 · Cited by 3,436 · see citing works
Publication bias in clinical research
Easterbrook, P. J., Gopalan, R., Berlin, J. A., & Matthews, D. R. (1991) · The Lancet · doi:10.1016/0140-6736(91)90201-y · Cited by 3,109 · see citing works
A Standardized Memory Scale for Clinical Use
Wechsler, D. (1945) · The Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1080/00223980.1945.9917223 · Cited by 2,960 · see citing works
(1995) · Cited by 2,809 · see citing works
Neurocognitive deficit in schizophrenia: A quantitative review of the evidence.
Heinrichs, R. W., & Zakzanis, K. K. (1998) · Neuropsychology · doi:10.1037/0894-4105.12.3.426 · Cited by 2,798 · see citing works
Neurocognitive deficit in schizophrenia: A quantitative review of the evidence.
Heinrichs, R. W., & Zakzanis, K. K. (1998) · Neuropsychology · doi:10.1037//0894-4105.12.3.426 · Cited by 2,791 · see citing works
Staging of alzheimer's disease-related neurofibrillary changes
Braak, H., & Braak, E. (1995) · Neurobiology of Aging · doi:10.1016/0197-4580(95)00021-6 · Cited by 2,357 · see citing works
Benton, A. (1994) · Annual Review of Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.45.1.1 · Cited by 2,298 · see citing works
A Compendium of Neuropsychological Tests
Selnes, O. A. (1991) · Neurology · doi:10.1212/wnl.41.11.1856-a · Cited by 2,268 · see citing works
The handbook of aging and cognition
Mitchell, D. B. (2001) · Applied Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1002/acp.747 · Cited by 1,893 · see citing works
Models of visuospatial and verbal memory across the adult life span.
Park, D. C., Lautenschlager, G. J., Hedden, T., Davidson, N. S., Smith, A. D., & Smith, P. K. (2002) · Psychology and Aging · doi:10.1037/0882-7974.17.2.299 · Cited by 1,792 · see citing works
Differential Effects of Early Hippocampal Pathology on Episodic and Semantic Memory
Vargha-Khadem, F., Gadian, D. G., Watkins, K. E., Connelly, A., Van Paesschen, W., & Mishkin, M. (1997) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.277.5324.376 · Cited by 1,746 · see citing works
L'examen psychologique ; Dans les cas d'ence-phalopathie traumatique (Les problemes)
Rey, A. E. (1941) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 1,703 · see citing works
Snowdon, D. A. (1997) · JAMA: The Journal of the American Medical Association · doi:10.1001/jama.1997.03540340047031 · Cited by 1,590 · see citing works
Summing up: The Science of Reviewing Research
Wilkinson, I., Light, R. J., & Pillemer, D. B. (1987) · Journal of Educational Statistics · doi:10.2307/1164691 · Cited by 1,486 · see citing works
California Verbal Learning Test
Delis, D. C., Freeland, J., Kramer, J. H., & Kaplan, E. (1987) · PsycTESTS Dataset · doi:10.1037/t48844-000 · Cited by 1,450 · see citing works
Light, R. J., & Pillemer, D. B. (1984) · Harvard University Press eBooks · doi:10.4159/9780674040243 · Cited by 1,422 · see citing works
Influence of social network on occurrence of dementia: a community-based longitudinal study
Fratiglioni, L., Wang, H.-X., Ericsson, K., Maytan, M., & Winblad, B. (2000) · The Lancet · doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(00)02113-9 · Cited by 1,361 · see citing works
Squire, L. R. (1986) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.3086978 · Cited by 1,278 · see citing works
Midlife blood pressure and dementia: the Honolulu–Asia aging study☆
Launer, L. J., Ross, G. W., Petrovitch, H., Masaki, K., Foley, D., White, L. R., & Havlik, R. J. (2000) · Neurobiology of Aging · doi:10.1016/s0197-4580(00)00096-8 · Cited by 1,008 · see citing works
Wang, H. (2002) · American Journal of Epidemiology · doi:10.1093/aje/155.12.1081 · Cited by 957 · see citing works
Positron Emission Tomography in Evaluation of Dementia
Silverman, D. H. S., Small, G. W., Chang, C. Y., Lu, C. S., de Aburto, M. A. K., Chen, W., Czernin, J. G., Rapoport, S. I., Pietrini, P., Alexander, G. E., et al. (2001) · JAMA · doi:10.1001/jama.286.17.2120 · Cited by 939 · see citing works
Documented head injury in early adulthood and risk of Alzheimer’s disease and other dementias
Plassman, B. L., Havlik, R. J., Steffens, D. C., Helms, M. J., Newman, T. N., Drosdick, D., Phillips, C., Gau, B. A., Welsh–Bohmer, K. A., Burke, J. R., et al. (2000) · Neurology · doi:10.1212/wnl.55.8.1158 · Cited by 896 · see citing works
Influence of leisure activity on the incidence of Alzheimer's disease
Scarmeas, N., Levy, G., Tang, M.-X., Manly, J., & Stern, Y. (2001) · Neurology · doi:10.1212/wnl.57.12.2236 · Cited by 831 · see citing works
Age differences in recall and recognition.
Craik, F. I. M., & McDowd, J. M. (1987) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1037/0278-7393.13.3.474 · Cited by 811 · see citing works
Separating conscious and unconscious influences of memory: Measuring recollection.
Jacoby, L. L., Toth, J. P., & Yonelinas, A. P. (1993) · Journal of Experimental Psychology General · doi:10.1037/0096-3445.122.2.139 · Cited by 802 · see citing works
The Preclinical Phase of Alzheimer Disease: A 22-Year Prospective Study of the Framingham Cohort
Elias, M. F., Beiser, A., Wolf, P. A., Au, R., White, R. F., & D'Agostino, R. B. (2000) · Archives of Neurology · doi:10.1001/archneur.57.6.808 · Cited by 716 · see citing works
Snowdon, D. A. (1996) · JAMA · doi:10.1001/jama.1996.03530310034029 · Cited by 696 · see citing works
Multilingual Aphasia Examination
Patterson, J. P. (2010) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-0-387-79948-3_900 · Cited by 690 · see citing works
Presymptomatic hippocampal atrophy in Alzheimer's disease: A longitudinal MRI study
Fox, N. C., Warrington, E. K., Freeborough, P. A., Hartikainen, P., Kennedy, A. M., Stevens, J. M., & Rossor, M. N. (1996) · Brain · doi:10.1093/brain/119.6.2001 · Cited by 656 · see citing works
Cytokines and cognition–the case for a head-to-toe inflammatory paradigm.
Wilson, C. J., Finch, C. E., & Cohen, H. J. (2002) · Journal of the American Geriatrics Society · doi:10.1046/j.1532-5415.2002.50619.x · Cited by 637 · see citing works
On the transfer of information from temporary to permanent memory
Craik, F. I. M. (1983) · Philosophical transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological sciences · doi:10.1098/rstb.1983.0059 · Cited by 633 · see citing works
Handbook of the psychology of aging
Bergmann, K. (1980) · Journal of Psychosomatic Research · doi:10.1016/0022-3999(80)90086-0 · Cited by 594 · see citing works
Prediction of probable Alzheimer's disease in memory-impaired patients
Tierney, M. C., Szalai, J. P., Snow, W. G., Fisher, R. H., Nores, A., Nadon, G., Dunn, E. M., & George‐Hyslop, P. S. (1996) · Neurology · doi:10.1212/wnl.46.3.661 · Cited by 575 · see citing works
Lindenberger, U., & Baltes, P. B. (1997) · Psychology and Aging · doi:10.1037//0882-7974.12.3.410 · Cited by 542 · see citing works
Devanand, D. P., Marston, K., Liu, X., Pelton, G. H., Padilla, M., Marder, K. S., Bell, K. L., Stern, Y., & Mayeux, R. P. (2000) · American Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.157.9.1399 · Cited by 536 · see citing works
Preclinical prediction of AD using neuropsychological tests
Albert, M., Moss, M. B., Tanzi, R. E., & JONES, K. (2001) · Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society · doi:10.1017/s1355617701755105 · Cited by 517 · see citing works
Morris, J. C., & Price, J. L. (2001) · Journal of Molecular Neuroscience · doi:10.1385/jmn:17:2:101 · Cited by 513 · see citing works
(2021) · Archives of Psychology · doi:10.31296/aop · Cited by 500 · see citing works
How meta-analysis increases statistical power.
Cohn, L. D., & Becker, B. J. (2003) · Psychological Methods · doi:10.1037/1082-989x.8.3.243 · Cited by 500 · see citing works
A Functional Account of Age Differences in Memory
Craik (2016) · doi:10.4324/9781315440446-15 · Cited by 490 · see citing works
Geerlings, M. I., Jonker, C., Bouter, L. M., Adèr, H. J., & Schmand, B. (1999) · American Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1176/ajp.156.4.531 · Cited by 487 · see citing works
Fox, N. C., Crum, W. R., Scahill, R. I., Stevens, J. M., Janssen, J. C., & Rossor, M. N. (2001) · The Lancet · doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(01)05408-3 · Cited by 455 · see citing works
Stability of the preclinical episodic memory deficit in Alzheimer's disease
Bäckman, L., Small, B. J., & Fratiglioni, L. (2001) · Brain · doi:10.1093/brain/124.1.96 · Cited by 449 · see citing works
Self-citationThe 'Preclinical Phase' of Probable Alzheimer's Disease
Linn, R. T. (1995) · Archives of Neurology · doi:10.1001/archneur.1995.00540290075020 · Cited by 437 · see citing works
Proneness to psychological distress is associated with risk of Alzheimer’s disease
Wilson, R. S., Evans, D. A., Bienias, J. L., Mendes de Leon, C. F., Schneider, J. A., & Bennett, D. A. (2003) · Neurology · doi:10.1212/01.wnl.0000096167.56734.59 · Cited by 428 · see citing works
CAMDEX : the Cambridge examination for mental disorders of the elderly
Roth, M. (1988) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 426 · see citing works
Neuropsychological detection and characterization of preclinical Alzheimer’s disease
Jacobs, D. M., Sano, M., Dooneief, G., Marder, K., Bell, K. L., & Stern, Y. (1995) · Neurology · doi:10.1212/wnl.45.5.957 · Cited by 409 · see citing works
LURIA'S NEUROPSYCHOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION
Draper, I. T. (1976) · Journal of Neurology Neurosurgery & Psychiatry · doi:10.1136/jnnp.39.4.409-b · Cited by 408 · see citing works
Lindenberger, U., & Baltes, P. B. (1997) · Psychology and Aging · doi:10.1037/0882-7974.12.3.410 · Cited by 394 · see citing works
Evidence for specific cognitive deficits in preclinical Huntington's disease
Lawrence, A. D. (1998) · Brain · doi:10.1093/brain/121.7.1329 · Cited by 382 · see citing works
A Compendium of Neuropsychological Tests, 2nd ed
(2000) · Archives of Neurology · doi:10.1001/archneur.57.2.278 · Cited by 379 · see citing works
Anstey, K., & Christensen, H. (2000) · Gerontology · doi:10.1159/000022153 · Cited by 377 · see citing works
Patterns of Cognitive Decline in Presymptomatic Alzheimer Disease
Chen, P., Ratcliff, G. G., Belle, S. H., Cauley, J. A., DeKosky, S. T., & Ganguli, M. (2001) · Archives of General Psychiatry · doi:10.1001/archpsyc.58.9.853 · Cited by 369 · see citing works
Longitudinal evaluation of early Alzheimer's disease using brain perfusion SPECT.
Kogure, D., Matsuda, H., Ohnishi, T., Asada, T., Uno, M., Kunihiro, T., Nakano, S., & Takasaki, M. (2000) · PubMed · Cited by 367 · see citing works
Mild Cognitive Impairments Predict Dementia in Nondemented Elderly Patients With Memory Loss
Bozoki, A., Giordani, B., Heidebrink, J. L., Berent, S., & Foster, N. L. (2001) · Archives of Neurology · doi:10.1001/archneur.58.3.411 · Cited by 361 · see citing works
Predicting Conversion to Alzheimer Disease Using Standardized Clinical Information
Daly, E. J., Zaitchik, D., Copeland, M., Schmahmann, J. D., Gunther, J. M., & Albert, M. (2000) · Archives of Neurology · doi:10.1001/archneur.57.5.675 · Cited by 358 · see citing works
Activation of medial temporal structures during episodic memory retrieval
Nyberg, L. H., McLntosh, A. R., Houle, S., Nilsson, L.-G., & Tulving, E. (1996) · Nature · doi:10.1038/380715a0 · Cited by 350 · see citing works
Small, B. J., Fratiglioni, L., Viitanen, M., Winblad, B., & Bäckman, L. (2000) · Archives of Neurology · doi:10.1001/archneur.57.6.839 · Cited by 329 · see citing works
Self-citationA Prospective Study of Cognitive Function and Onset of Dementia in Cognitively Healthy Elders
Rubin, E. H., Storandt, M., Miller, J. P., Kinscherf, D. A., Grant, E., Morris, J. C., & Berg, L. (1998) · Archives of Neurology · doi:10.1001/archneur.55.3.395 · Cited by 318 · see citing works
Free recall of trilingual lists
Tulving, E., & Colotla, V. A. (1970) · Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1016/0010-0285(70)90006-x · Cited by 304 · see citing works
Arnáiz, E., Jelic, V., Almkvist, O., Wahlund, L.-O., Winblad, B., Valind, S., & Nordberg, A. (2001) · Neuroreport · doi:10.1097/00001756-200103260-00045 · Cited by 302 · see citing works
Childhood mental ability and dementia
Whalley, L. J., Starr, J. M., Athawes, R. W. B., Hunter, D. C., Pattie, A., & Deary, I. J. (2000) · Neurology · doi:10.1212/wnl.55.10.1455 · Cited by 274 · see citing works
Palmer, K., Wang, H., Bäckman, L., Winblad, B. G., & Fratiglioni, L. (2002) · American Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.159.3.436 · Cited by 263 · see citing works
Self-citationCAMDEX, the cambridge examination for mental disorders of the elderly
Derix, M. M. A., & Walstra, G. J. M. (1989) · Journal of the Neurological Sciences · doi:10.1016/0022-510x(89)90064-6 · Cited by 239 · see citing works
Andreasen, N. C., Minthon, L., Vanmechelen, E., Vanderstichele, H., Davidsson, P., Winblad, B. G., & Blennow, K. (1999) · Neuroscience Letters · doi:10.1016/s0304-3940(99)00617-5 · Cited by 236 · see citing works
The occurrence of depressive symptoms in the preclinical phase of AD
Berger, A., Fratiglioni, L., Forsell, Y., Winblad, B. G., & Bäckman, L. (1999) · Neurology · doi:10.1212/wnl.53.9.1998 · Cited by 235 · see citing works
Self-citationBondi, M. W., Salmon, D. P., Galasko, D., Thomas, R. G., & Thal, L. J. (1999) · Psychology and Aging · doi:10.1037//0882-7974.14.2.295 · Cited by 235 · see citing works
Hultsch, D. F. (1998) · Cited by 227 · see citing works
Cognitive process in preclinical phase of dementia
Fabrigoule, C. (1998) · Brain · doi:10.1093/brain/121.1.135 · Cited by 226 · see citing works
Consolidation of human memory over decades revealed by functional magnetic resonance imaging
Haist, F., Gore, J. B., & Mao, H. Z. (2001) · Nature Neuroscience · doi:10.1038/nn739 · Cited by 214 · see citing works
Cognitive Markers Preceding Alzheimer's Dementia in the Healthy Oldest Old
Howieson, D. B., Dame, A., Camicioli, R. M., Sexton, G. J., Payami, H., & Kaye, J. A. (1997) · Journal of the American Geriatrics Society · doi:10.1111/j.1532-5415.1997.tb03091.x · Cited by 211 · see citing works
Pihlajam�ki, M., Tanila, H., H�nninen, T., Könönen, M., Laakso, M. P., Partanen, K. P. L., Soininen, H. S., & Aronen, H. J. (2000) · Annals of Neurology · doi:10.1002/1531-8249(200004)47:4 · Cited by 210 · see citing works
Learning and retention in preclinical and early Alzheimer's disease.
Grober, E. H., & Kawas, C. H. (1997) · Psychology and Aging · doi:10.1037//0882-7974.12.1.183 · Cited by 203 · see citing works
Hansen, L. A., DeTeresa, R. M., Davies, P., & Terry, R. D. (1988) · Neurology · doi:10.1212/wnl.38.1.48 · Cited by 194 · see citing works
Palmer, K., Bäckman, L., Winblad, B. G., & Fratiglioni, L. (2003) · BMJ · doi:10.1136/bmj.326.7383.245 · Cited by 189 · see citing works
Self-citationAlzheimer’s disease can be accurately diagnosed in very mildly impaired individuals
Salmon, D. P., Thomas, R. G., Pay, M. M., Booth, A., Hofstetter, C. R., Thal, L. J., & Katzman, R. (2002) · Neurology · doi:10.1212/wnl.59.7.1022 · Cited by 189 · see citing works
Cognitive predictors of incident Alzheimer's disease: A prospective longitudinal study.
Small, B. J., Herlitz, A., Fratiglioni, L., Almkvist, O., & al, E. (1997) · Neuropsychology · doi:10.1037//0894-4105.11.3.413 · Cited by 182 · see citing works
Self-citationNew Frontiers in Cognitive Aging
(2004) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198525691.001.0001 · Cited by 176 · see citing works
Samuel, W., Caligiuri, M. P., Galasko, D., Lacro, J. P., Marini, M., McClure, F. S., Warren, K. A., & Jeste, D. V. (2000) · International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry · doi:10.1002/1099-1166(200009)15:9 · Cited by 170 · see citing works
Bondi, M. W., Salmon, D. P., Galasko, D. R., et al. (1999) · Psychology and Aging · doi:10.1037/0882-7974.14.2.295 · Cited by 170 · see citing works
On the nature of the verbal memory deficit in Alzheimer's disease
Martin, A. D., Brouwers, P. Y., Cox, C., & Fedio, P. (1985) · Brain and Language · doi:10.1016/0093-934x(85)90088-4 · Cited by 165 · see citing works
Learning and retention in preclinical and early Alzheimer's disease.
Grober, E. H., & Kawas, C. H. (1997) · Psychology and Aging · doi:10.1037/0882-7974.12.1.183 · Cited by 159 · see citing works
Cognitive functioning in very old age
Bäckman, L., Small, B. J., Wåhlin, Å., & Larsson, M. U. (1999) · Cited by 146 · see citing works
Self-citationSaitoh, O., Courchesne, E., Egaas, B., Lincoln, A. J., & Schreibman, L. (1995) · Neurology · doi:10.1212/wnl.45.2.317 · Cited by 144 · see citing works
Tierney, M. C., Szalai, J. P., Snow, W. G., Fisher, R. H., Tsuda, T., Chi, H., McLachlan, D. R. C., & George‐Hyslop, P. S. (1996) · Neurology · doi:10.1212/wnl.46.1.149 · Cited by 144 · see citing works
Ingles, J. L., Wentzel, C., Fisk, J. D., & Rockwood, K. J. (2002) · Stroke · doi:10.1161/01.str.0000024433.36590.1b · Cited by 144 · see citing works
The Prediction of Alzheimer Disease
Tierney, M. C. (1996) · Archives of Neurology · doi:10.1001/archneur.1996.00550050053023 · Cited by 144 · see citing works
Magnetization transfer imaging in normal aging, mild cognitive impairment, and Alzheimer's disease
van der Flier, W. M., van den Heuvel, D. M. J., Weverling‐Rijnsburger, A. W. E., Bollen, E. L. E. M., Westendorp, R. G. J., van Buchem, M. A., & Middelkoop, H. A. M. (2002) · Annals of Neurology · doi:10.1002/ana.10244 · Cited by 137 · see citing works
Bäckman, L., & Forsell, Y. (1994) · Journal of Abnormal Psychology · doi:10.1037//0021-843x.103.2.361 · Cited by 131 · see citing works
Self-citationB Vitamins, Cognition, and Aging: A Review
Calvaresi, E., & Bryan, J. (2001) · The Journals of Gerontology Series B · doi:10.1093/geronb/56.6.p327 · Cited by 131 · see citing works
Olichney, J. (2002) · Journal of Neurology Neurosurgery & Psychiatry · doi:10.1136/jnnp.73.4.377 · Cited by 130 · see citing works
LANGE, K. L., BONDI, M. W., SALMON, D. P., GALASKO, D., DELIS, D. C., THOMAS, R. G., & THAL, L. J. (2002) · Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society · doi:10.1017/s1355617702870096 · Cited by 129 · see citing works
Aging and memory: Cognitive and biological perspectives.
Bäckman, L., Small, B. J., & Wåhlin, Å. (2001) · Cited by 129 · see citing works
Self-citationGeschwind, D. H., Robidoux, J., Alarcón, M., Miller, B. L., Wilhelmsen, K. C., Cummings, J. L., & Nasreddine, Z. S. (2001) · Annals of Neurology · doi:10.1002/ana.10024 · Cited by 128 · see citing works
Farrer, L. A. (1997) · JAMA · doi:10.1001/jama.1997.03550160069041 · Cited by 124 · cited 1× · see citing works
“They also include markers for genetic predisposition such as the presence of the apolipoprotein 4 allele (for an overview, see Farrer et al., 1997), subjective memory complaints (Geerlings, Jonker, Bouter, Adèr, & Schmand, 1999; Palmer, Bäckman, Winblad , & Fratiglioni, 2003), family reports of…”
BackgroundCognitive predictors of incident Alzheimer's disease: A prospective longitudinal study.
Small, B. J., Herlitz, A., Fratiglioni, L., et al. (1997) · Neuropsychology · doi:10.1037/0894-4105.11.3.413 · Cited by 124 · see citing works
Self-citationPerson-specific paths of cognitive decline in Alzheimer's disease and their relation to age.
Wilson, R. S., Gilley, D. W., Bennett, D., Beckett, L. A., & Evans, D. A. (2000) · Psychology and Aging · doi:10.1037//0882-7974.15.1.18 · Cited by 120 · see citing works
Depressive symptoms, clinical AD, and cortical plaques and tangles in older persons
Wilson, R. S., Schneider, J. A., Bienias, J. L., Arnold, S. E., Evans, D. A., & Bennett, D. A. (2003) · Neurology · doi:10.1212/01.wnl.0000092914.04345.97 · Cited by 109 · see citing works
Adult life span changes in immediate visual memory and verbal intelligence.
Giambra, L. M., Arenberg, D., Zonderman, A. B., Kawas, C. H., & al, E. (1995) · Psychology and Aging · doi:10.1037/0882-7974.10.1.123 · Cited by 100 · see citing works
Small, B. J., Viitanen, M. H., & Bäckman, L. (1997) · The Journals of Gerontology Series A · doi:10.1093/gerona/52a.5.m299 · Cited by 95 · see citing works
Self-citationTierney, M. C. (2000) · Archives of Family Medicine · doi:10.1001/archfami.9.6.527 · Cited by 92 · see citing works
Bäckman, L., & Small, B. J. (1998) · Psychology and Aging · doi:10.1037//0882-7974.13.2.267 · Cited by 91 · see citing works
Self-citationMassoud, F., Devi, G., Stern, Y., Lawton, A., Goldman, J. E., Liu, Y., Chin, S. S., & Mayeux, R. (1999) · Archives of Neurology · doi:10.1001/archneur.56.11.1368 · Cited by 91 · see citing works
A prospective study of cognitive function in the elderly
Korten, A. E., Henderson, A. S., Christensen, H. M., Jorm, A. F., Rodgers, B., Jacomb, P. A., & Mackinnon, A. J. (1997) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s0033291797005217 · Cited by 82 · see citing works
Bäckman, L., & Forsell, Y. (1994) · Journal of Abnormal Psychology · doi:10.1037/0021-843x.103.2.361 · Cited by 82 · see citing works
Self-citationPerson-specific paths of cognitive decline in Alzheimer's disease and their relation to age.
Wilson, R. S., Gilley, D. W., Bennett, D. A., et al. (2000) · Psychology and Aging · doi:10.1037/0882-7974.15.1.18 · Cited by 78 · see citing works
Laukka, E. J., Jones, S., Small, B. J., Fratiglioni, L., & Bäckman, L. (2004) · Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society · doi:10.1017/s1355617704103068 · Cited by 66 · see citing works
Self-citationRate of Cognitive Decline in Preclinical Alzheimer's Disease: The Role of Comorbidity
Bäckman, L., Jones, S., Small, B. J., Agüero‐Torres, H., & Fratiglioni, L. (2003) · The Journals of Gerontology Series B · doi:10.1093/geronb/58.4.p228 · Cited by 66 · see citing works
Self-citationMotor Changes in Presymptomatic Huntington Disease Gene Carriers
Siemers, E., Foroud, T., Bill, D. J., Sorbel, J., Norton, J. A., Hodes, M. E., Niebler, G. E., Conneally, P. M., & Christian, J. C. (1996) · Archives of Neurology · doi:10.1001/archneur.1996.00550060029011 · Cited by 63 · see citing works
Cognitive decline in AD and mild cognitive impairment is associated with global brain damage
van der Flier, W. M., van den Heuvel, D. M. J., Weverling‐Rijnsburger, A. W. E., Spilt, A., Bollen, E. L. E. M., Westendorp, R. G. J., Middelkoop, H. A. M., & van Buchem, M. A. (2002) · Neurology · doi:10.1212/wnl.59.6.874 · Cited by 61 · see citing works
Bäckman, L., & Small, B. J. (1998) · Psychology and Aging · doi:10.1037/0882-7974.13.2.267 · Cited by 59 · see citing works
Self-citationYamaguchi, H., Sugihara, S., Ogawa, A., Oshima, N., & Ihara, Y. (2001) · Journal of Neuropathology & Experimental Neurology · doi:10.1093/jnen/60.7.731 · Cited by 56 · see citing works
Influences of Thyroid Stimulating Hormone on Cognitive Functioning in Very Old Age
Wåhlin, Å., Wahlin, T. R., Small, B. J., & Bäckman, L. (1998) · The Journals of Gerontology Series B · doi:10.1093/geronb/53b.4.p234 · Cited by 54 · see citing works
Self-citationAcetylcholinesterase inhibitors for Alzheimer's disease
Flicker, L. A. (1999) · BMJ · doi:10.1136/bmj.318.7184.615 · Cited by 49 · see citing works
Simon, E., Leach, L. R., Winocur, G., et al. (1994) · Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/01688639408402652 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
Fahlander, K., Wåhlin, Å., Fastbom, J., Grut, M., Forsell, Y., Hill, R. D., Winblad, B. G., & Bäckman, L. (2000) · The Journals of Gerontology Series B · doi:10.1093/geronb/55.5.p259 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
Self-citationStability of age-associated memory impairment during a longitudinal population-based study.
Helkala, E., Koivisto, K., Hanninen, T., Vanhanen, M., Kuusisto, J., Mykkanen, L., Laakso, M., & Riekkinen, P. (1997) · Journal of the American Geriatrics Society · doi:10.1111/j.1532-5415.1997.tb00996.x · Cited by 26 · see citing works
Pathological correlates of dementia in Alzheimer's disease
Mann, D. (1994) · Neurobiology of Aging · doi:10.1016/0197-4580(94)90033-7 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
Future scenarios for the prevention and delay of alzheimer disease onset in high-risk groups:
Post, S. G. (1999) · American Journal of Preventive Medicine · doi:10.1016/s0749-3797(98)00139-1 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Cognitive deficits in preclinical Alzheimer’s disease: Current knowledge and future directions
Bäckman, L., Small, B. J., & Fratiglioni, L. (2004) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198525691.003.0008 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Self-citation
Flagged first, then by citations
Research works printed but not linked: 4
- Benton, 1974, Revised Visual Retention Test
- Rey, 1941, L'examen psychologique dans les cas d'encephalopathie traumatique, Archives de Psychologie, 28, 286
- Wechsler, 1981, Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale-Revised.
- Zazzo, 1974, Test des deux barrages. Actualites pedagogiques et psychologiques, Vol. 7
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Research criteria for the diagnosis of Alzheimer's disease: revising the NINCDS–ADRDA criteria
Dubois, B., Feldman, H. H., Jacova, C., DeKosky, S. T., Barberger-Gateau, P., Cummings, J., Delacourte, A., Galasko, D., Gauthier, S., Jicha, G., et al. (2007) · The Lancet Neurology · doi:10.1016/s1474-4422(07)70178-3 · Cited by 4,411 · see citing works
Nelson, P. T., Alafuzoff, I., Bigio, E. H., Bouras, C., Braak, H., Cairns, N. J., Castellani, R. J., Crain, B. J., Davies, P., Tredici, K. D., et al. (2012) · Journal of Neuropathology & Experimental Neurology · doi:10.1097/nen.0b013e31825018f7 · Cited by 2,050 · see citing works
Webster, S. J., Bachstetter, A. D., Nelson, P. T., Schmitt, F. A., & Van Eldik, L. J. (2014) · Frontiers in Genetics · doi:10.3389/fgene.2014.00088 · Cited by 755 · see citing works
“In the human disease, the earliest AD-related cognitive deficits present themselves as episodic memory impairment during the late preclinical phase of the disease (Backman et al., 2005; Twamley et al., 2006; Bondi et al., 2008).”
BackgroundNeuropathology and Cognitive Impairment in Alzheimer Disease: A Complex but Coherent Relationship
Nelson, P. T., Braak, H., & Markesbery, W. R. (2009) · Journal of Neuropathology & Experimental Neurology · doi:10.1097/nen.0b013e3181919a48 · Cited by 643 · see citing works
Late-Life Social Activity and Cognitive Decline in Old Age
James, B. D., Wilson, R. S., Barnes, L. L., & Bennett, D. A. (2011) · Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society · doi:10.1017/s1355617711000531 · Cited by 590 · see citing works
Karp, A., Paillard-Borg, S., Wang, H.-X., Silverstein, M., Winblad, B., & Fratiglioni, L. (2006) · Dementia and Geriatric Cognitive Disorders · doi:10.1159/000089919 · Cited by 542 · see citing works
Innovative diagnostic tools for early detection of Alzheimer's disease
Laske, C., Sohrabi, H. R., Frost, S. M., López-de-Ipiña, K., Garrard, P., Buscema, M., Dauwels, J., Soekadar, S. R., Mueller, S., Linnemann, C., et al. (2015) · Alzheimer's & Dementia · doi:10.1016/j.jalz.2014.06.004 · Cited by 316 · see citing works
Brain aging, Alzheimer's disease, and mitochondria
Swerdlow, R. H. (2011) · Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA) - Molecular Basis of Disease · doi:10.1016/j.bbadis.2011.08.012 · Cited by 306 · see citing works
Brewin, C. R., Kleiner, J. S., Vasterling, J. J., & Field, A. P. (2007) · Journal of Abnormal Psychology · doi:10.1037/0021-843x.116.3.448 · Cited by 290 · see citing works
Rabin, L. A., Paré, N., Saykin, A. J., Brown, M. J., Wishart, H. A., Flashman, L. A., & Santulli, R. B. (2009) · Aging, Neuropsychology, and Cognition · doi:10.1080/13825580902825220 · Cited by 256 · see citing works
Verbal fluency performance in amnestic MCI and older adults with cognitive complaints
NUTTERUPHAM, K., SAYKIN, A., RABIN, L., ROTH, R., WISHART, H., PARE, N., & FLASHMAN, L. (2008) · Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology · doi:10.1016/j.acn.2008.01.005 · Cited by 238 · see citing works
Exercise and Hippocampal Memory Systems
Voss, M. W., Soto, C., Yoo, S., Sodoma, M., Vivar, C., & van Praag, H. (2019) · Trends in Cognitive Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.tics.2019.01.006 · Cited by 235 · see citing works
De Roeck, E. E., De Deyn, P. P., Dierckx, E., & Engelborghs, S. (2019) · Alzheimer's Research & Therapy · doi:10.1186/s13195-019-0474-3 · Cited by 209 · see citing works
What did you do yesterday? A meta-analysis of sex differences in episodic memory.
Asperholm, M., Högman, N., Rafi, J., & Herlitz, A. (2019) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/bul0000197 · Cited by 182 · see citing works
Beltrami, D., Gagliardi, G., Rossini Favretti, R., Ghidoni, E., Tamburini, F., & Calzà, L. (2018) · Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnagi.2018.00369 · Cited by 175 · see citing works
Sleep disturbances and dementia risk: a multicenter study
Sindi, S., Kåreholt, I., Johansson, L., Skoog, J., Sjöberg, L., Wang, H., Johansson, B., Fratiglioni, L., Soininen, H., Solomon, A., et al. (2018) · Alzheimer's & Dementia · doi:10.1016/j.jalz.2018.05.012 · Cited by 144 · see citing works
Visual short-term memory binding in Alzheimer's disease and depression
Parra, M. A., Abrahams, S., Logie, R. H., & Della Sala, S. (2010) · Journal of Neurology · doi:10.1007/s00415-010-5484-9 · Cited by 115 · see citing works
Johnson, S. C., La Rue, A., Hermann, B. P., Xu, G., Koscik, R. L., Jonaitis, E. M., Bendlin, B. B., Hogan, K. J., Roses, A. D., Saunders, A. M., et al. (2011) · Alzheimer's & Dementia · doi:10.1016/j.jalz.2010.11.012 · Cited by 112 · see citing works
DNA Hypomethylation in Blood Links <i>B3GALT4</i> and <i>ZADH2</i> to Alzheimer’s Disease
Madrid, A., Hogan, K. J., Papale, L. A., Clark, L. R., Asthana, S., Johnson, S. C., & Alisch, R. S. (2018) · Journal of Alzheimer’s Disease · doi:10.3233/jad-180592 · Cited by 77 · see citing works
Suehs, B. T., Davis, C. D., Alvir, J., van Amerongen, D., PharmD, N. C. P., Joshi, A. V., Faison, W. E., & Shah, S. N. (2013) · American Journal of Alzheimer's Disease & Other Dementias® · doi:10.1177/1533317513488911 · Cited by 71 · see citing works
Trajectories of Alzheimer disease‐related cognitive measures in a longitudinal sample
Bilgel, M., An, Y., Lang, A., Prince, J., Ferrucci, L., Jedynak, B., & Resnick, S. M. (2014) · Alzheimer's & Dementia · doi:10.1016/j.jalz.2014.04.520 · Cited by 65 · see citing works
Wouters, H., van Gool, W. A., Schmand, B., Zwinderman, A. H., & Lindeboom, R. (2010) · International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry · doi:10.1002/gps.2402 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
Shaaban, C. E., Rosano, C., Cohen, A. D., Huppert, T., Butters, M. A., Hengenius, J., Parks, W. T., & Catov, J. M. (2021) · Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnagi.2021.637574 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
Rovner, B. W., Casten, R. J., Hegel, M. T., & Leiby, B. E. (2012) · Contemporary Clinical Trials · doi:10.1016/j.cct.2012.02.016 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Lin, C., Ly, M., Karim, H. T., Wei, W., Snitz, B. E., Klunk, W. E., & Aizenstein, H. J. (2020) · Alzheimer's Research & Therapy · doi:10.1186/s13195-019-0573-1 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
Speech evaluation of patients with alzheimer’s disease using an automatic interviewer
Alonso Hernández, J. B., Barragán Pulido, M. L., Gil Bordón, J. M., Ferrer Ballester, M. Á., & Travieso González, C. M. (2022) · Expert Systems with Applications · doi:10.1016/j.eswa.2021.116386 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
- Authors
- Bäckman, L., Jones, S., Berger, A.-K., Laukka, E. J., & Small, B. J.
- Affiliations
- Max Planck Society (DE)
- Karolinska Institutet (SE)
- University of South Florida (US)
- Venue
- Neuropsychology
- Published
- 2005
- Volume
- 19
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 520-531
- ISSN
- 0894-4105 (ISSN-L)
- 1931-1559
- OpenAlex
- W2125887218
- Semantic Scholar
- 99051c32bb328f7e4958cc9ae584169497205787
- Cited by
- 735
- References
- 137
- Citations by year
- 2026: 22 · 2025: 22 · 2024: 35 · 2023: 32 · 2022: 21 · 2021: 48 · 2020: 38 · 2019: 49 · 2018: 34 · 2017: 37 · 2016: 37 · 2015: 33 · 2014: 32 · 2013: 40 · 2012: 38
- FWCI
- 4.55
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Neuropsychology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Max Planck Institute for Plasma Physics (submittedVersion)
- Max Planck Digital Library (submittedVersion)
- MPG.PuRe (Max Planck Society) (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Psychiatry and Mental health › Dementia and Cognitive Impairment Research
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Physiology › Alzheimer's disease research and treatments
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Pulmonary and Respiratory Medicine › Cancer-related cognitive impairment studies
- Keywords
- preclinical Alzheimer's disease, cognitive impairment, episodic memory, perceptual speed, executive function, verbal ability, visuospatial ability, attention, primary memory, age effects, follow-up interval, population-based sampling, delayed testing
- MeSH terms
- Adult, Aged, Alzheimer Disease, Attention, Cognition, Cognition Disorders, Female, Follow-Up Studies, Humans, Male, Memory, Short-Term, Middle Aged, Neuropsychological Tests, Psychiatric Status Rating Scales, Psychomotor Performance, Retrospective Studies, Space Perception, Sample Size, Statistics, Nonparametric
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Claims read by deepseek-v4.1-flash under definition version 3 (extract-v3) on 2026-10-10.
Classified by jev-1.13-20260917 (gold-guideline-v0.2) on 2026-10-10.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
