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Cited by 12Action Observation and SynchronizationFree Will and AgencyNeural and Behavioral Psychology Studies

Event-related potentials of automatic imitation are modulated by ethnicity during stimulus processing, but not during motor execution

Open access
Rauchbauer, Birgit, Pfabigan, Daniela M., Lamm, Claus·2018·Scientific Reports
DOI 10.1038/s41598-018-30926-4PMC PMC6109053
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Abstract

This study investigated neural processes underlying automatic imitation and its modulation by ethnically diverse hand stimuli (Black, White) using event-related brain potentials (ERPs). Automatic imitation relies on motor stimulus-response compatibility (SRC), i.e., response conflict caused by motoric (in)congruency between task-irrelevant hand stimuli and the required response. Our novel task aimed to separate two distinct neuro-cognitive processing stages of automatic imitation and its modulation by ethnicity: the stage of stimulus processing (i.e. perception), comprising presentation of stimulus ethnicity and SRC, and the stage of response execution (i.e. action). Effects of ethnicity were observed in ERPs of different stages of stimulus processing - during presentation of ethnicity (LPP) and SRC (N190, P3). ERPs at response execution, Pre-Motion Positivity (PMP) and Reafferent Potential (RAP), were only sensitive to congruency. The N190 results may index visual self-other distinction, while the neural timecourse of P3 and PMP variation could reflect a dynamical decision process linking perception to action, with motor initiation reflected in the PMP component. The PMP might further index motor-related self-other distinction regardless of ethnicity. Importantly, overt motor execution was not influenced by ethnically diverse stimuli, which suggests generalizability of the automatic imitation effect across ethnicities.

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

This ERP study used an ethnic imitation-inhibition task to separate stimulus-processing and motor-execution stages of automatic imitation with White and Black hand stimuli. Ethnicity modulated early stimulus-processing ERPs (LPP, N190, P3) but not response-execution ERPs (PMP, RAP) or overt automatic imitation, suggesting generalizability across ethnicities.

Key findings

  • Behavioral automatic imitation was robust: incongruent RTs (543.59 ms) > baseline (517.17 ms) > congruent (480.06 ms), but the automatic imitation effect did not differ by ethnicity (t(28) = −0.116, p = 0.910); RTs trended longer for Black than White hands (F(1, 28) = 3.18, p = 0.085).
  • During ethnicity presentation, LPP was more positive for Black than White hands (M = 2.367 vs. 1.763; t(28) = 4.467, p < 0.001); N100 did not differ (p = 0.409).
  • During SRC presentation, N190 was more negative for Black than White hands (M = −1.977 vs. −1.478; F(1, 28) = 9.931, p = 0.004); P3 showed a congruency effect (F(1, 28) = 27.159, p < 0.001) and an ethnicity × congruency interaction (F(1, 28) = 7.465, p = 0.011), with Black congruent > incongruent (11.986 vs. 10.323; t(28) = 5.372, p < 0.001).
  • At response execution, PMP and RAP were sensitive only to congruency: PMP congruent 7.37 vs. incongruent 5.13 (F(1, 28) = 27.97, p < 0.001); RAP congruent 5.104 vs. incongruent 4.14 (F(1, 28) = 5.508, p = 0.03). PMP predicted the automatic imitation effect for White hands; N190 plus PMP predicted it for Black hands.

Methods

  • 29 right-handed White participants (21 women; mean age 25.25 years, SD = 4.59) after excluding one of 30; EEG recorded with 58 Ag/AgCl electrodes.
  • Participants performed the ethnic imitation-inhibition task (EIIT), a modified imitation-inhibition task with White and Black gloved hands, ethnicity visible only at the wrist, 300 trials (50 per Ethnicity × Congruency condition).
  • Behavioral analysis used winsorized correct-trial RTs, t-tests, and repeated measures ANOVA; ERP analysis examined stimulus-locked N100/LPP and N190/P3, response-locked PMP/RAP, with ANOVAs, correlations, and stepwise regressions predicting automatic imitation, RAP, and RTs.

Limitations

  • Stated: this was an exploratory first study with a middle-sized sample; participants were exclusively White; the ethnicity manipulation was subtle because ethnicity was visible only at the wrist/glove; the authors call for future studies with Black participants to test whether effects reflect in-group/out-group versus color salience.
  • Evident: because all participants were White, in-group/out-group and perceptual-salience explanations cannot be disentangled.
  • Evident: the behavioral ethnicity effect was only a trend (p = 0.085), and the null ethnicity modulation of automatic imitation may reflect limited power/sample; the paper does not provide a dedicated limitations section beyond its exploratory framing.

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1038/s41598-018-30926-4

Cites

69 of 69 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

24 tests recomputed · 0 with the reported and recomputed p on opposite sides of .05

Claims the paper makes

14 of 60 cited sources checked · 12 supported · 0 flagged · accuracy not yet measured

  • Interpretationown data

    The P3 may encode motivationally significant events, which in the present study were the saliently colored/ethnic Black hands during SRC processing.

    “This suggests that the P3 may encode motivationally significant events, which, in the present study, were the saliently colored/ethnic Black hands during SRC processing, potentially contributing to a dynamic decision process of linking perception to action31,42–45”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 5 sources checked
    • cites [31] Verleger, R., Jaśkowski, P. & Wascher, E. Evidence for an integrative role of P3b in linking reaction to perception. J. Psychophysiol. 19, 165–181 (2005). source
    • cites [42] Twomey, D. M., Murphy, P. R., Kelly, S. P. & O’connell, R. G. The classic P300 encodes a build‐to‐threshold decision variable. Eur. J. Neurosci. 42, 1636–1643 (2015). source
    • cites [43] Kelly, S. P. & O’Connell, R. G. Internal and external influences on the rate of sensory evidence accumulation in the human brain. J. Neurosci. 33, 19434–19441 (2013). source

      The Discussion (page unavailable) describes the P300/P3b as evoked by task-relevant events requiring decisions and proposes viewing it as a dynamically evolving decision process. It does not characterize those events as motivationally significant. The identification of Black hands as such events is the citing authors’ interpretation of their own study, not a finding of this source. (LLM, conf=0.84)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • cites [44] Berchicci, M., Spinelli, D. & Di Russo, F. New insights into old waves. Matching stimulus-and response-locked ERPs on the same time-window. Biol. Psychol. 117, 202–215 (2016). source
    • cites [45] O’connell, R. G., Dockree, P. M. & Kelly, S. P. A supramodal accumulation-to-bound signal that determines perceptual decisions in humans. Nat. Neurosci. 15, 1729 (2012). source
  • Interpretationreasoning

    The present study extends Deschrijver et al.'s finding of a N190 congruency effect in an imitation-inhibition task to the color/ethnicity of the displayed task-irrelevant hands.

    “The present study thus extends Deschrijver et al.s’12 finding of a N190 congruency effect in an imitation-inhibition task to the color/ethnicity of the displayed task-irrelevant hands.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [12] Deschrijver, E., Wiersema, J. R. & Brass, M. The influence of action observation on action execution: Dissociating the contribution of action on perception, perception on action, and resolving conflict. Cogn. Affect. Behav. Neurosci. 17, 381–393 (2017). source
  • Findingown data

    The present results could not replicate the previously reported result of enhanced N190 amplitudes for incongruent compared to congruent trials.

    “Yet, the present results could not replicate the previously reported result of enhanced N190 amplitudes for incongruent compared to congruent trials12.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [12] Deschrijver, E., Wiersema, J. R. & Brass, M. The influence of action observation on action execution: Dissociating the contribution of action on perception, perception on action, and resolving conflict. Cogn. Affect. Behav. Neurosci. 17, 381–393 (2017). source
  • Findingown data

    Overt motor execution was not influenced by ethnically diverse stimuli.

    “Importantly, overt motor execution was not influenced by ethnically diverse stimuli”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The ethnicity of the hand stimuli is effectively conveyed by the wrist color despite the hand being covered by a beige glove.
  • Findingown data

    Mean RTs on incongruent trials were longer than on congruent trials (t(28) = 11.09, p < 0.001; incongruent M = 543.59 ms, SE = 12.02 ms; congruent M = 480.06 ms, SE = 10.60 ms).

    “mean RTs on incongruent trials were longer than on congruent (t(28) = 11.09, p < 0.001; incongruent: M = 543.59 ms, SE = 12.02 ms, congruent: M = 480.06 ms, SE = 10.60 ms)”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 43
  • May combine two claims. 22

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    Automatic imitation has been shown to be modulated by social context cues.

    “Automatic imitation has been shown to be modulated by social context cues (see e.g.3–11)”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim3 of 9 sources checked
    • cites [3] Brass, M., Bekkering, H., Wohlschläger, A. & Prinz, W. Compatibility between observed and executed finger movements: comparing symbolic, spatial, and imitative cues. Brain Cogn. 44, 124–143 (2000). source
    • cites [4] Catmur, C., Walsh, V. & Heyes, C. Sensorimotor learning configures the human mirror system. Curr. Biol. 17, 1527–1531 (2007). source
    • cites [5] Heyes, C., Bird, G., Johnson, H. & Haggard, P. Experience modulates automatic imitation. Cogn. Brain Res. 22, 233–240 (2005). source
    • cites [6] Leighton, J., Bird, G., Orsini, C. & Heyes, C. Social attitudes modulate automatic imitation. J. Exp. Soc. Psychol. 46, 905–910 (2010). source
    • cites [7] Rauchbauer, B., Majdandžić, J., Stieger, S. & Lamm, C. The Modulation of Mimicry by Ethnic Group-Membership and Emotional Expressions. PLoS One 11, e0161064 (2016). source
    • cites [8] Rauchbauer, B., Majdandžić, J., Hummer, A., Windischberger, C. & Lamm, C. Distinct neural processes are engaged in the modulation of mimicry by social group-membership and emotional expressions. Cortex 70, 49–67 (2015). source
    • cites [9] Wang, Y. & Hamilton, A. F. de C. Social top-down response modulation (STORM): a model of the control of mimicry in social interaction. Front. Hum. Neurosci. 6, 160 (2012). source
    • cites [10] Wang, Y., Newport, R. & Hamilton, A. F. de C. Eye contact enhances mimicry of intransitive hand movements. Biol. Lett. rsbl20100279 (2010). source
    • cites [11] Press, C., Gillmeister, H. & Heyes, C. Bottom-up, not top-down, modulation of imitation by human and robotic models. Eur. J. Neurosci. 24, 2415–2419 (2006). source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    The neural dynamics of automatic imitation have only recently started to be investigated.

    “To this date the neural dynamics of automatic imitation have only recently started to be investigated (see for example12)”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [12] Deschrijver, E., Wiersema, J. R. & Brass, M. The influence of action observation on action execution: Dissociating the contribution of action on perception, perception on action, and resolving conflict. Cogn. Affect. Behav. Neurosci. 17, 381–393 (2017). source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    The LPP has been shown sensitive to biologically relevant information, such as the presentation of threatening information.

    “which has been shown sensitive to biologically relevant information, such as the presentation of threatening information33–36”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim2 of 4 sources checked
    • cites [33] Bublatzky, F. & Schupp, H. T. Pictures cueing threat: brain dynamics in viewing explicitly instructed danger cues. Soc. Cogn. Affect. Neurosci. 7, 611–622 (2011). source
    • cites [34] Hajcak, G. & Olvet, D. M. The persistence of attention to emotion: brain potentials during and after picture presentation. Emotion 8, 250 (2008). source
    • cites [35] Schupp, H. T. et al. The facilitated processing of threatening faces: an ERP analysis. Emotion 4, 189 (2004). source
    • cites [36] Weinberg, A. & Hajcak, G. Beyond good and evil: the time-course of neural activity elicited by specific picture content. Emotion 10, 767 (2010). source

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    The extrastriate body area (EBA), the potential generator of the N190, has been shown activated during low-level visual self-other discrimination.

    “In line with this, the extrastriate body area (EBA), the potential generator of the N19016, has been shown activated during low-level visual self-other discrimination41.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [16] Thierry, G. et al. An event-related potential component sensitive to images of the human body. Neuroimage 32, 871–879 (2006). source
    • cites [41] Vocks, S. et al. Differential neuronal responses to the self and others in the extrastriate body area and the fusiform body area. Cogn. Affect. Behav. Neurosci. 10, 422–429 (2010). source

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductreasoning

    Hand stimuli were matched for luminance using the SHINE toolbox to avoid perceptual differences or attentional effects driven by differential luminance characteristics of the ethnically diverse hand wrists.

    “Moreover, in order to avoid perceptual differences or attentional effects driven by differential luminance characteristics of the ethnically diverse hand wrists, hand stimuli were matched for luminance using the SHINE (Spectrum, Histogram, and Intensity Normalization and Equalization) toolbox56 for Matlab 8.3 (TheMathworks, Inc., MA).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [56] Willenbockel, V. et al. Controlling low-level image properties: the SHINE toolbox. Behav. Res. Methods 42, 671–684 (2010). source
    • Rests on an assumption: Differential luminance characteristics of ethnically diverse hand wrists drive perceptual differences or attentional effects.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    The role of the P3 component lies in bridging stimulus perception and response execution in a dynamically evolving decision process.

    “It has been suggested that the role of the P3 component lies in bridging stimulus perception and response execution31,44 in a dynamically evolving decision process, linking sensory encoding of stimulus perception to the preparation of action42,43,45, and/or response control44.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 5 sources checked
    • cites [31] Verleger, R., Jaśkowski, P. & Wascher, E. Evidence for an integrative role of P3b in linking reaction to perception. J. Psychophysiol. 19, 165–181 (2005). source
    • cites [44] Berchicci, M., Spinelli, D. & Di Russo, F. New insights into old waves. Matching stimulus-and response-locked ERPs on the same time-window. Biol. Psychol. 117, 202–215 (2016). source
    • cites [42] Twomey, D. M., Murphy, P. R., Kelly, S. P. & O’connell, R. G. The classic P300 encodes a build‐to‐threshold decision variable. Eur. J. Neurosci. 42, 1636–1643 (2015). source
    • cites [43] Kelly, S. P. & O’Connell, R. G. Internal and external influences on the rate of sensory evidence accumulation in the human brain. J. Neurosci. 33, 19434–19441 (2013). source
    • cites [45] O’connell, R. G., Dockree, P. M. & Kelly, S. P. A supramodal accumulation-to-bound signal that determines perceptual decisions in humans. Nat. Neurosci. 15, 1729 (2012). source

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductreasoning

    Stimuli were presented using two consecutive frames to simulate finger lifting movement, to minimise the influence of ERP component overlap induced by rapidly changing frames in the EEG/ERP signal.

    “Stimuli were presented using two consecutive frames to simulate finger lifting movement (as opposed to the set-up of the SAMT used in7,8 using 4 frames) to minimise the influence of ERP component overlap induced by rapidly changing frames in the EEG/ERP signal (Fig. 1).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [7] Rauchbauer, B., Majdandžić, J., Stieger, S. & Lamm, C. The Modulation of Mimicry by Ethnic Group-Membership and Emotional Expressions. PLoS One 11, e0161064 (2016). source
    • cites [8] Rauchbauer, B., Majdandžić, J., Hummer, A., Windischberger, C. & Lamm, C. Distinct neural processes are engaged in the modulation of mimicry by social group-membership and emotional expressions. Cortex 70, 49–67 (2015). source
    • Rests on an assumption: Rapidly changing frames in EEG/ERP signals induce ERP component overlap.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductcitation

    Overall global field power (GFP) was calculated to specify and/or validate a predefined timeframe of interest via assessing overall peak latency of the components of interest.

    “First, we calculated overall global field power (GFP)65–67 to specify and/or validate a predefined timeframe of interest via assessing overall peak latency of the components of interest.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [65] Skrandies, W. Global field power and topographic similarity. Brain Topogr. 3, 137–141 (1990). source
    • cites [66] Hamburger, H. L. & vd Burgt, M. A. G. Global field power measurement versus classical method in the determination of the latency of evoked potential components. Brain Topogr. 3, 391–396 (1991). source
    • cites [67] Murray, M. M., Brunet, D. & Michel, C. M. Topographic ERP Analyses: A Step-by-Step Tutorial Review. Brain Topogr. 20, 249–264 (2008). source

      The “Global Field Power” section describes GFP as a waveform over time that can be assessed using peak measures, supporting its use to examine peak latency. It does not explicitly say that GFP peaks specify or validate a predefined timeframe of interest. Page numbers are unavailable in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.78)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    LPP amplitudes differed significantly per Ethnicity (t(28) = 4.467, p < 0.001, Cohen's d = 0.362), with more positive mean amplitudes for Black compared to White ethnic stimuli (Black M = 2.367, SE = 0.262; White M = 1.763, SE = 0.35).

    “The dependent t-test comparing LPP amplitudes per Ethnicity revealed significant differences (t(28) = 4.467, p < 0.001, Cohen’s d = 0.362). LPP mean amplitudes were more positive for Black compared to White ethnic stimuli (Black: M = 2.367, SE = 0.262, White: M = 1.763, SE = 0.35)”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The ethnicity of the hand stimuli is effectively conveyed by the wrist color despite the hand being covered by a beige glove.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Effects of ethnicity were observed in ERPs of different stages of stimulus processing: during presentation of ethnicity (LPP) and SRC (N190, P3).

    “Effects of ethnicity were observed in ERPs of different stages of stimulus processing - during presentation of ethnicity (LPP) and SRC (N190, P3).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The ethnicity of the hand stimuli is effectively conveyed by the wrist color despite the hand being covered by a beige glove.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingown data

    There was a trend interaction effect of Ethnicity x Hemisphere on N190 peak amplitudes (F(1, 28) = 3.040, p = 0.092, partial η2 = 0.098).

    “Furthermore we found a trend result for the interaction effect of Ethnicity x Hemisphere (F(1, 28) = 3.040, p = 0.092, partial η2 = 0.098).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Congruent RAP amplitudes of both ethnicities were not correlated with corresponding facilitation indices (FIc), as were incongruent RAP amplitudes of White hands with the respective inhibition index (IIc) (all p-values ≥ 0.142).

    “Congruent RAP amplitudes of both ethnicities were not correlated with the corresponding facilitation indices (FIc), as were incongruent RAP amplitudes of White hands with the respective inhibition index (IIc) (all p-values ≥ 0.142).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    P3 peak amplitudes on congruent trials were comparable across ethnicity, with no significant difference between White and Black hands (t(28) = 1.389, p = 0.176).

    “Congruent trials were comparable across ethnicity, with no significant difference found between White and Black hands (t(28) = 1.389, p = 0.176;).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The ethnicity of the hand stimuli is effectively conveyed by the wrist color despite the hand being covered by a beige glove.
    • Rests on an assumption: All participants were White, and therefore Black hands constituted out-group hands.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Reaction times were faster on congruent trials and slower on baseline and incongruent trials.

    “In terms of behavioral results, we observed, as expected, faster RT on congruent, and slower RT on baseline and incongruent trials.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    PMP amplitudes best predicted individual mean RTs, together with the P3 peak latency on congruent trials, and alone on incongruent trials, for both ethnicities.

    “Furthermore, PMP amplitudes best predicted individual mean RTs, together with the P3 peak latency on congruent, and alone on incongruent trials, for both ethnicities.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The interaction effects of Ethnicity x Congruency, Hemisphere x Congruency, and Ethnicity x Congruency x Hemisphere on N190 peak amplitudes were not significant (F(1, 28) = 0.217, p = 0.645; F(1, 28) = 0.219, p = 0.643; F(1, 28) = 0.438, p = 0.514).

    “as were the interaction effects Ethnicity x Congruency (F(1, 28) = 0.217, p = 0.645, partial η2 = 0.008), Hemisphere x Congruency (F(1, 28) = 0.219, p = 0.643, partial η2 = 0.008) and the three-way interaction of Ethnicity x Congruency x Hemisphere (F(1, 28) = 0.438, p = 0.514, partial η2 = 0.015)”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Error rates in the EIIT were low, with participants' mean error rates across congruent, incongruent and baseline trials of 1.42% (Mean = 4.41, SD = 4.021; Minimum: 1, Maximum: 17 errors).

    “Error rates in the EIIT were low, with participants’ mean error rates across congruent, incongruent and baseline trials of 1.42% (Mean = 4,41, SD = 4,021; Minimum: 1, Maximum: 17 errors).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Only on congruent trials, P3 latencies and PMP mean amplitudes together predicted individual mean RTs, and P3 peak and PMP mean amplitudes correlated with each other.

    “Considering that only on congruent trials, P3 latencies and PMP mean amplitudes together predicted individual mean RT’s, and P3 peak and PMP mean amplitudes correlated with each other (see supplementary material), the two components might overlap only on congruent trials in the present task.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    Presenting the nature of the task-irrelevant hand at the wrist only, such as human versus robotic hands, has been found to not alter the automatic imitation effect.

    “presenting the nature of the task-irrelevant hand at the wrist only, such as in a study showing human versus robotic hands, has been found to not alter the automatic imitation effect11”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [11] Press, C., Gillmeister, H. & Heyes, C. Bottom-up, not top-down, modulation of imitation by human and robotic models. Eur. J. Neurosci. 24, 2415–2419 (2006). source

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    The neural timecourse of P3 and PMP variation could reflect a dynamical decision process linking perception to action, with motor initiation reflected in the PMP component.

    “the neural timecourse of P3 and PMP variation could reflect a dynamical decision process linking perception to action, with motor initiation reflected in the PMP component.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationreasoning

    The stimulus-related P3 may, together with the PMP, be seen as part of a dynamically evolving decision process linking the perception of motivationally salient information and motor preparation.

    “Furthermore, as discussed in detail below, the stimulus-related P3 may, together with the PMP, also be seen as part of a dynamically evolving decision process linking the perception of motivationally salient information and motor preparation.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The RAP represents reafferent sensory information following movement production, potentially generated in the motor cortex.

    “It has been suggested that the RAP represents reafferent sensory information following movement production24, potentially generated in the motor cortex30.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [24] Shibasaki, H., Barrett, G., Halliday, E. & Halliday, A. M. Components of the movement-related cortical potential and their scalp topography. Electroencephalogr. Clin. Neurophysiol. 49, 213–226 (1980). source
    • cites [30] Cui, R. Q. & Deecke, L. High resolution DC-EEG analysis of the Bereitschaftspotential and post movement onset potentials accompanying uni-or bilateral voluntary finger movements. Brain Topogr. 11, 233–249 (1999). source

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    The automatic imitation response on Black hand trials may be mediated by visual categorization processes (N190) at the stage of SRC presentation and directly at the stage of movement initiation (PMP).

    “More specifically, the automatic imitation response on Black hand trials may be mediated by visual categorization processes (N190) at the stage of SRC presentation and directly at the stage of movement initiation (PMP).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    The LPP has been associated with categorization processes of ethnic stimuli.

    “and also been associated with categorization processes of ethnic stimuli14.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [14] Ito, T. A. & Urland, G. R. Race and gender on the brain: electrocortical measures of attention to the race and gender of multiply categorizable individuals. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 85, 616 (2003). source

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    The PMP reflects the motor command to initiate movement.

    “It has been suggested that the PMP reflects the motor command to initiate movement26,27.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [26] Bortoletto, M., Sarlo, M., Poli, S. & Stegagno, L. Pre-motion positivity during self-paced movements of finger and mouth. Neuroreport 17, 883–886 (2006). source
    • cites [27] Deecke, L., Grözinger, B. & Kornhuber, H. H. Voluntary finger movement in man: cerebral potentials and theory. Biol. Cybern. 23, 99–119 (1976). source

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    For the presentation of Black stimuli, the overt behavioral automatic imitation response is influenced by neural processes both at the stage of stimulus processing (N190) and response execution.

    “In the case of the presentation of Black stimuli it is suggested that the overt behavioral automatic imitation response is influenced by neural processes both at the stage of stimulus processing, reflected in the N190, and response execution.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    The N190 reflects the extraction of information relevant for categorization of the human body.

    “It has been suggested that the N190 reflects the extraction of information relevant for categorization of the human body16.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [16] Thierry, G. et al. An event-related potential component sensitive to images of the human body. Neuroimage 32, 871–879 (2006). source

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    At a later processing window during SRC processing (P3), motivationally salient information was encoded, revealing an enhanced congruency effect for Black hand trials.

    “At a later processing window during this stage (P3), motivationally salient information was encoded, revealing an enhanced congruency effect for Black hand trials.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductown data

    Artifact-free segments averaged per participant and condition had mean trial counts of 117.45 (SD = 16.21) for frame 1 ethnicity presentation and 41.13 (SD = 4.45) for frame 2 stimulus-locked conditions.

    “Artifact-free segments were averaged per participant and condition first, for stimulus processing: Ethnicity presentation (frame 1, on average 117.45 trials, SD = 16.21): White vs. Black; SRC presentation (frame 2 stimulus-locked, on average 41.13 trials, SD = 4.45): White-congruent, White-incongruent, Black-congruent, Black-incongruent;”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Study design and conductreasoning

    Potential effect of the modulation of automatic imitation would thus be due only to the subtle ethnicity manipulation.

    “Potential effect of the modulation of automatic imitation would thus be due only to the subtle ethnicity manipulation.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductnone given

    The study was approved by the ethics committee of the University of Vienna and carried out in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki (revision of 2013).

    “The study was approved by the ethics committee of the University of Vienna and carried out in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki (revision of 2013).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    Differences in P3 latencies correspond to the duration of stimulus evaluation.

    “Differences in P3 latencies have been shown to correspond to the duration of stimulus evaluation32,47, with easier categorization reflected in larger amplitudes (e.g.32,48).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [32] Kutas, M., McCarthy, G. & Donchin, E. Augmenting mental chronometry: the P300 as a measure of stimulus evaluation time. Science (80-.). 197, 792–795 (1977). source
    • cites [47] Duncan-Johnson, C. C. P300 latency: A new metric of information processing. Psychophysiology (1981).

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductcitation

    A skin-scratching procedure ensured electrode impedances below 4 kΩ prior to recording.

    “A skin-scratching procedure ensured electrode impedances below 4 kΩ prior to recording57.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [57] Picton, T. W. & Hillyard, S. A. Cephalic skin potentials in electroencephalography. Electroencephalogr. Clin. Neurophysiol. 33, 419–424 (1972). source

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductreasoning

    Time windows and electrode locations for ERP component quantification were determined by literature and visual data inspection.

    “Time windows and electrode locations for ERP component quantification were determined by literature and visual data inspection since this was one of the first studies to investigate temporal dynamics of automatic imitation and its modulation by ethnically diverse hands.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Including outlier values in the analysis violates assumptions of general linear model estimations.

    “Including outlier values in the analysis violates assumptions of general linear model estimations59,61.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [59] Keselman, H. J., Wilcox, R. R. & Lix, L. M. A generally robust approach to hypothesis testing in independent and correlated groups designs. Psychophysiology 40, 586–596 (2003). source
    • cites [61] Wilcox, R. R. Fundamentals of modern statistical methods: Substantially improving power and accuracy. (Springer Science & Business Media, 2010). source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationreasoning

    The integrative role of the response-locked P3 leading to motor preparation and the role of the PMP for motor initiation are overlapping processes and components.

    “Rather, it could be suggested that the integrative role of the response-locked P3 leading to motor preparation and the role of the PMP for motor initiation are overlapping processes and components.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The PMP and P3 components share topography.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductcitation

    Extended infomax independent components analysis (ICA) was applied to detect eye movement-related artifacts.

    “Subsequently, extended infomax independent components analysis (ICA)63,64 was applied to detect eye movement-related artifacts.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [63] Bell, A. J. & Sejnowski, T. J. An information-maximization approach to blind separation and blind deconvolution. Neural Comput. 7, 1129–1159 (1995). source
    • cites [64] Lee, T.-W., Girolami, M. & Sejnowski, T. J. Independent component analysis using an extended infomax algorithm for mixed subgaussian and supergaussian sources. Neural Comput. 11, 417–441 (1999). source

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    The RAP component reflects sensory feedback about congruency with the imitated hand, yet, in the case of distinct color/ethnicity of the presented hand, specifically related to the inhibition of imitative movements.

    “The present results thus suggest that the RAP component reflects sensory feedback about congruency with the imitated hand, yet, in the case of distinct color/ethnicity of the presented hand, specifically related to the inhibition of imitative movements.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductnone given

    The reported time windows for peak extraction were chosen to acknowledge inter-individual variation in peak latencies.

    “The reported time windows for peak extraction were chosen to acknowledge inter-individual variation in peak latencies.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Stimulus categorization of color/ethnicity may be reflected during stages of stimulus processing, interacting with SRC processing at a later time point of this stage, but not being reflected in the overt behavioral response or the neural correlates immediately before and after movement execution.

    “Stimulus categorization of color/ethnicity may thus be reflected during stages of stimulus (i.e. color/ethnicity) processing, interacting with SRC processing at a later time point of this stage, but not being reflected in the overt behavioral response or the neural correlates immediately before and after movement execution.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductreasoning

    The hand was wearing a beige cotton glove and ethnicity was only detectable at the wrist of the hand.

    “Importantly, the hand was wearing a beige cotton glove and ethnicity was only detectable at the wrist of the hand.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductreasoning

    The beige glove and wrist-only ethnicity manipulation were used to exclude confounding perceptual and attentional effects on task performance and modulation of mimicry caused by low-level color differences between conditions.

    “This was done to exclude confounding perceptual and attentional effects on task performance and modulation of mimicry caused by low-level color differences between conditions.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationown data

    The error rate was too low in most participants to provide analyzable relevant information regarding the modulation of the automatic imitation effect.

    “The error rate was thus too low in most participants to provide analyzable relevant information regarding the modulation of the automatic imitation effect and was not further included in the analysis.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The PMP may reflect motor-related self-other distinction in the initiation of movement, including, in a potential overlapping function with the response-locked P3 component, motor preparation.

    “The PMP may reflect motor-related self-other distinction in the initiation of movement, including, in a potential overlapping function with the response-locked P3 component, motor preparation.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductreasoning

    The study took an explorative approach and recruited a middle-sized sample in comparison to related studies.

    “As this was, to our knowledge, the first study investigating ERPs of automatic imitation focusing on their modulation by ethnicity, we took an explorative approach and recruited a middle-sized sample in comparison to related studies (e.g.17,53).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [17] Sebanz, N., Knoblich, G., Prinz, W. & Wascher, E. Twin peaks: An ERP study of action planning and control in coacting individuals. J. Cogn. Neurosci. 18, 859–870 (2006). source
    • cites [53] van Veen, V. & Carter, C. S. The anterior cingulate as a conflict monitor: fMRI and ERP studies. Physiol. Behav. 77, 477–482 (2002). source
    • Rests on an assumption: The present study is the first to investigate ERPs of automatic imitation focusing on their modulation by ethnicity.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductcitation

    A winsorization procedure was applied to subjects' individual mean response times per condition and target cue to account for outliers before further statistical analyses.

    “A winsorization procedure was applied to subjects’ individual mean response times (RT) per condition and target cue to account for outliers before further statistical analyses was conducted.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [59] Keselman, H. J., Wilcox, R. R. & Lix, L. M. A generally robust approach to hypothesis testing in independent and correlated groups designs. Psychophysiology 40, 586–596 (2003). source
    • cites [61] Wilcox, R. R. Fundamentals of modern statistical methods: Substantially improving power and accuracy. (Springer Science & Business Media, 2010). source
    • cites [60] Wilcox, R. Modern statistics for the social and behavioral sciences: A practical introduction. (CRC press, 2011). source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductnone given

    Only data from correct trials entered data analysis.

    “Only data from correct trials entered data analysis.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductnone given

    A semi-automatic artifact correction eliminated trials with voltage values exceeding ±75 μV or voltage drifts >50 μV.

    “A semi-automatic artifact correction eliminated trials with voltage values exceeding ±75 µV or voltage drifts >50 µV.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    The P3 component acts as an intermediate link on the dynamic formation of decision from stimulus encoding to motor preparation.

    “This has been argued to be in line with the P3 component acting as an intermediate link on the dynamic formation of decision from stimulus encoding to motor preparation42.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [42] Twomey, D. M., Murphy, P. R., Kelly, S. P. & O’connell, R. G. The classic P300 encodes a build‐to‐threshold decision variable. Eur. J. Neurosci. 42, 1636–1643 (2015). source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductown data

    Post-hoc power analyses suggested that the power of the exploratory approach was high for nearly all tested effects (1-β > 0.94).

    “Post-hoc power analyses suggested that the power of our exploratory approach was high for nearly all tested effects (1-β > 0.94).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductnone given

    The overall timing was comparable between the SAMT and the EIIT, as was the presentation of the displayed hands in the lower half of the frame.

    “The overall timing was nevertheless comparable between the SAMT and the EIIT, as was the presentation of the displayed hands in the lower half of the frame.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    Potential modulation of the automatic imitation effect by the ethnically diverse hand stimuli occurred implicitly.

    “In line with these instructions, potential modulation of the automatic imitation effect by the ethnically diverse hand stimuli occurred implicitly.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    A study investigating automatic imitation of human versus robotic hands showed the nature of the hand only at the wrist.

    “This is in line with a study investigating automatic imitation of human versus robotic hands, also showing the nature of the hand only at the wrist11.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [11] Press, C., Gillmeister, H. & Heyes, C. Bottom-up, not top-down, modulation of imitation by human and robotic models. Eur. J. Neurosci. 24, 2415–2419 (2006). source

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductreasoning

    Participants were asked to wear the same beige glove throughout the experiment to ensure maximum comparability between the task-irrelevant hand on screen and participants' hands.

    “Participants were also asked to wear the same beige glove throughout the experiment to ensure maximum comparability between the task-irrelevant hand on screen and participants’ hands.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductcitation

    Participants' handedness was assessed using the Edinburgh Handedness Inventory.

    “Participants’ handedness was assessed using the Edinburgh Handedness Inventory52.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [52] Oldfield, R. C. Assesment and analysis of handedness - Edinburgh Inventory. Neuropsychologia 9, 97 (1971). source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Manipulating the wrists of humans and robots did not modulate the behavioral response.

    “Similar to our study, manipulating the wrists of humans and robots did not modulate the behavioral response.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [11] Press, C., Gillmeister, H. & Heyes, C. Bottom-up, not top-down, modulation of imitation by human and robotic models. Eur. J. Neurosci. 24, 2415–2419 (2006). source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Easier categorization is reflected in larger amplitudes.

    “Differences in P3 latencies have been shown to correspond to the duration of stimulus evaluation32,47, with easier categorization reflected in larger amplitudes (e.g.32,48).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [32] Kutas, M., McCarthy, G. & Donchin, E. Augmenting mental chronometry: the P300 as a measure of stimulus evaluation time. Science (80-.). 197, 792–795 (1977). source
    • cites [48] McCarthy, G. & Donchin, E. A metric for thought: a comparison of P300 latency and reaction time. Science (80-.). 211, 77–80 (1981). source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationreasoning

    The role of the PMP to index motor initiation and its role in a decision formation process, by sharing overlap with a response-locked P3 component, may not exclude each other.

    “The role of the PMP, as mentioned above, to index motor initiation and its role in a decision formation process, by sharing overlap with a response-locked P3 component, may not exclude each other.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
58 of 58

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The ethnicity of the hand stimuli is effectively conveyed by the wrist color despite the hand being covered by a beige glove.

    “Ethnicity of the hand was visible only at the wrist since the hand was covered with a beige glove”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    All participants were White, and therefore Black hands constituted out-group hands.

    “since all participants were White”
    “Black hands in our study constituted out-group hands”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Automatic imitation paradigms rely on stimulus-response compatibility (SRC) effects.

    “Automatic imitation paradigms rely on stimulus-response compatibility (SRC) effects.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The present study is the first to investigate ERPs of automatic imitation focusing on their modulation by ethnicity.

    “As this was, to our knowledge, the first study investigating ERPs of automatic imitation focusing on their modulation by ethnicity”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The PMP and P3 components share topography.

    “considering also the shared topography of the PMP and the P3.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Rapidly changing frames in EEG/ERP signals induce ERP component overlap.

    “to minimise the influence of ERP component overlap induced by rapidly changing frames in the EEG/ERP signal”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Differential luminance characteristics of ethnically diverse hand wrists drive perceptual differences or attentional effects.

    “in order to avoid perceptual differences or attentional effects driven by differential luminance characteristics of the ethnically diverse hand wrists”
7 of 7

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

  • The Pre-Motor Positivity serves as a proxy for successfully resolved self-other distinction.

    “We attempted to replicate this finding, which we had interpreted as the PMP serving as a proxy for successfully resolved self-other distinction (Rauchbauer, Pfabigan, & Lamm, 2018).”

    From Interplay of self-other distinction and cognitive control mechanisms in a social automatic imitation task: An ERP study (2021) · cites this paper as Rauchbauer, Pfabigan, & Lamm, 2018

    The Discussion ('Action: The stage of response execution'; page not provided) suggests that the PMP indexes motor-related self-other distinction in this task. It does not establish the PMP as a proxy for *successfully resolved* distinction, and presents its proposed role as tentative. (LLM, conf=0.82)

    Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • In previous work, Pre-Motor Positivity amplitude variation in incongruent relative to congruent trials predicted the respective response times of incongruent versus congruent trials.

    “We also observed that PMP amplitude variation in incongruent relative to congruent trials predicted the respective response times of incongruent versus congruent trials.”

    From Interplay of self-other distinction and cognitive control mechanisms in a social automatic imitation task: An ERP study (2021) · cites this paper as Rauchbauer et al., 2018

    The EEG Results section (page unavailable) reports that the PMP amplitude difference between incongruent and congruent trials predicted the behavioral automatic imitation effect—the reaction-time difference—for White-hand stimuli. For Black-hand stimuli, the best predictive model combined PMP and N190 amplitude differences, so the unqualified claim overstates what PMP variation alone predicted. (LLM, conf=0.85)

    Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • In the present experiment, N2 amplitudes were not sensitive to congruency information.

    “In the present experiment, N2 amplitudes were not sensitive to congruency information, which is in line with a recent study administering an automatic imitation task (Rauchbauer et al., 2018; see Section 2.4 in Supplementary Materials).”

    From Interplay of self-other distinction and cognitive control mechanisms in a social automatic imitation task: An ERP study (2021) · cites this paper as Rauchbauer et al., 2018

    The EEG Results (Perception: Stimulus processing; page unavailable) report no significant congruency effect on N190 peak amplitudes in an automatic imitation task, which is consistent with the citing sentence’s general point. The cited paper identifies the component as N190, however, not N2, so it does not directly establish the stated result for N2 amplitudes. (LLM, conf=0.82)

    Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • Interference control during automatic imitation is predominantly driven by cognitive control/action monitoring processes, which are modulated by social context demands.

    “The present study thus partly extends our previous results (Rauchbauer et al., 2018) as it suggests that primarily processes of cognitive conflict/action monitoring are guiding our behavioral responses.”

    From Interplay of self-other distinction and cognitive control mechanisms in a social automatic imitation task: An ERP study (2021) · cites this paper as Rauchbauer et al., 2018

    The Introduction describes automatic imitation as interference from a conflicting observed movement, and the Behavioral Results report slower responses on incongruent trials. The Discussion, “Perception: Stimulus processing of ethnicity & SRC,” reports ethnicity-related differences in stimulus processing. But the paper does not establish that cognitive control or action monitoring predominantly drives behavioral responses; the Behavioral Results found no significant ethnicity difference in the automatic-imitation effect. The citing sentence presents that stronger mechanism claim as the present study’s inference, rather than explicitly attributing it to the 2018 paper. Page numbers are unavailable in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.85)

    Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • Two instead of four consecutive frames were used to minimize the influence of overlapping ERP components caused by rapidly changing multiple frames.

    “Two instead of four consecutive frames were used in this experiment (compared with previous studies (Rauchbauer et al., 2015(Rauchbauer et al., , 2016) ) to minimize the influence of overlapping ERP components caused by rapidly changing multiple frames (see also Rauchbauer et al., 2018).”

    From Interplay of self-other distinction and cognitive control mechanisms in a social automatic imitation task: An ERP study (2021) · cites this paper as Rauchbauer et al., 2018

Statistics that don’t add up

Each reported p-value recomputed from its test statistic and degrees of freedom.

  • Inconsistent p-value: t(28) = −0.116, p = .910

    Minor

    The paper reports p = .91 here; recomputing from the test statistic and its degrees of freedom gives p = .908 (two-tailed). The check cannot tell whether the statistic or the p-value is the misprint.

    Reported p = .91 · recomputed p = .908

1 of 1

Statistics recomputed

Every reported test result, recomputed from its test statistic and degrees of freedom. A result shows as not adding up only once an independent check has confirmed it.

  • Doesn’t add upt(28) = -0.116reported p = .91 · recomputed p = .908

    “t(28) = −0.116, p = .910”

  • ConsistentF(2, 56) = 86.29reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001

    “F(2, 56) = 86.29, p < .001”

  • Consistentt(28) = 11.09reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001

    “t(28) = 11.09, p < .001”

  • Consistentt(28) = 5.16reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001

    “t(28) = 5.16, p < .001”

  • Consistentt(28) = 10.79reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001

    “t(28) = 10.79, p < .001”

  • ConsistentF(1, 28) = 3.18reported p = .085 · recomputed p = .085

    “F(1, 28) = 3.18, p = .085”

  • ConsistentF(2, 56) = 1.554reported p = .22 · recomputed p = .220

    “F(2, 56) = 1.554, p = .220”

  • Consistentt(28) = 0.839reported p = .409 · recomputed p = .409

    “t(28) = 0.839, p = .409”

  • Consistentt(28) = 4.467reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001

    “t(28) = 4.467, p < .001”

  • ConsistentF(1, 28) = 9.931reported p = .004 · recomputed p = .004

    “F(1, 28) = 9.931, p = .004”

  • ConsistentF(1, 28) = 3.04reported p = .092 · recomputed p = .092

    “F(1, 28) = 3.040, p = .092”

  • ConsistentF(1, 28) = 2.185reported p = .151 · recomputed p = .151

    “F(1, 28) = 2.185, p = .151”

  • ConsistentF(1, 28) = 0.217reported p = .645 · recomputed p = .645

    “F(1, 28) = 0.217, p = .645”

  • ConsistentF(1, 28) = 0.219reported p = .643 · recomputed p = .643

    “F(1, 28) = 0.219, p = .643”

  • ConsistentF(1, 28) = 0.438reported p = .514 · recomputed p = .513

    “F(1, 28) = 0.438, p = .514”

  • ConsistentF(1, 28) = 27.159reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001

    “F(1, 28) = 27.159, p < .001”

  • ConsistentF(1, 28) = 0.076reported p = .785 · recomputed p = .785

    “F(1, 28) = 0.076, p = .785”

  • ConsistentF(1, 28) = 7.465reported p = .011 · recomputed p = .011

    “F(1, 28) = 7.465, p = .011”

  • Consistentt(28) = 5.372reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001

    “t(28) = 5.372, p < .001”

  • Consistentt(28) = 2.051reported p = .05 · recomputed p = .050

    “t(28) = 2.051, p = .05”

  • Consistentt(28) = 1.389reported p = .176 · recomputed p = .176

    “t(28) = 1.389, p = .176”

  • Consistentt(28) = 2.322reported p = .028 · recomputed p = .028

    “t(28) = 2.322, p = .028”

  • ConsistentF(1, 28) = 27.97reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001

    “F(1, 28) = 27.97, p < .001”

  • ConsistentF(1, 28) = 5.508reported p = .03 · recomputed p = .026

    “F(1, 28) = 5.508, p = .03”

24 of 24

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.

  • White-incongruent RT model overstates R2

    Major

    For this one-predictor model, the reported β of −0.521 implies R2 = 0.271, rather than 0.655.

    Reported 0.655 · recomputed 0.271441

  • Table 2 reports an impossible increase in R2

    Major

    Adding the stated ΔR2 of 0.638 to Model 1's R2 of 0.532 gives 1.170. R2 cannot exceed 1.

  • White-hand automatic-imitation model overstates R2

    Major

    Model 1 has a single predictor, so its R2 must equal its standardized coefficient squared. The reported β of −0.532 gives R2 = 0.283, not 0.532.

    Reported 0.532 · recomputed 0.283024

  • Black-incongruent RT model overstates R2

    Major

    The model has one predictor, for which R2 must equal β squared. The reported β of −0.638 gives 0.407, not the stated 0.659.

    Reported 0.659 · recomputed 0.407044

  • Table 5 gives unequal B and β for standardized data

    Major

    The table says both the predictors and reaction times are normalized z-scores. Under that standardization, an unstandardized coefficient B must equal its standardized coefficient β, but the PMP row gives −0.515 and −2.439.

  • Figure and methods specify different LPP electrodes

    Minor

    Figure 2 identifies R24 and Cz (L30) in the LPP cluster, whereas the methods identify R27 and Oz (L30). These are different electrode descriptions for the same analysis.

6 of 6

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

3 of the 72 references couldn’t be matched to a known paper.

Cited by

Sorted by citations

Related

Authors
Rauchbauer, B., Pfabigan, D. M., & Lamm, C.
Affiliations
  • Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (FR)
  • University of Vienna (AT)
Corresponding author
Lamm, Claus
ORCID
Venue
Scientific Reports
Publisher
Springer Science and Business Media LLC
Published
2018-08-24
Volume
8
Issue
1
Pages
12760-12760
ISSN
2045-2322 (ISSN-L)
DOI
10.1038/s41598-018-30926-4
PMC
PMC6109053
OpenAlex
W2888707008
Cited by
12
References
72
Citations by year
2026: 2 · 2025: 1 · 2024: 1 · 2023: 2 · 2022: 1 · 2021: 3 · 2020: 2
FWCI
1.60
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
Locations
  • Scientific Reports (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
  • Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
  • PubMed Central (submittedVersion, cc-by)
  • Phaidra (Universität Wien) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
  • DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion)
Topics
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Action Observation and Synchronization
  • Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Free Will and Agency
  • Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neural and Behavioral Psychology Studies
Keywords
automatic imitation, ethnicity, stimulus-response compatibility, event-related potentials, self-other distinction, P3, motor execution, perception-action coupling
MeSH terms
Adult, Attitude, Automation, Behavior, Electroencephalography, Ethnicity, Evoked Potentials, Female, Humans

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Claims read by deepseek-v4.1-flash under definition version 3 (extract-v3) on 2026-10-08.

Classified by jev-1.13-20260917 (gold-guideline-v0.2) on 2026-10-08.

Cited sources are checked by gpt-6-sol.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

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