Cultivation and genetics of Artemisia annua L. for increased production of the antimalarial artemisinin

Ferreira, J.F.S.; Laughlin, J. C.; Delabays, N.; de Magalhães, P.M.

doi:10.1079/pgr200585

Cited by 130Plant biochemistry and biosynthesisSesquiterpenes and Asteraceae StudiesAgricultural Productivity and Crop Improvement

Cultivation and genetics of Artemisia annua L. for increased production of the antimalarial artemisinin

Ferreira, J.F.S., Laughlin, J. C., Delabays, N., de Magalhães, P.M.·2005·Plant Genetic Resources

DOI 10.1079/pgr200585

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Abstract

Malaria has been treated for over 350 years with quinine and quinine-derived drugs. However, in several areas of the world, some strains of the malarial parasite Plasmodium falciparum have developed resistance against these drugs. Recently, the World Health Organization (WHO) recommended the use of artemisinin-combination treatments (ACT) as the first-line treatment for multidrug-resistant falciparum malaria. The WHO estimates that current supplies of artemisinin are sufficient for only 30 million ACT, and is foreseeing the need for 130–220 million ACT in 2005 (WHO, 2004). Current research on the production of synthetic artemisinin-like compounds by the Roll Back Malaria project, pharmaceutical companies and academia resulted in a promising synthetic artemisinin-like compound (OZ277) which is currently undergoing phase I clinical trials. In about 5 years this drug is expected to be approved and made available to the public, however, meeting current global demands for ACT depends on the immediate availability of affordable artemisinin-derived drugs. This will involve expansion of the area under cultivation of Artemisia annua and improved methods of cultivation and processing of raw material, associated with more efficient methods for extraction and purification of artemisinin from plant material. This review addresses the agricultural, environmental and genetic aspects that may be useful in the successful large-scale cultivation of A. annua and for producing the antimalarial artemisinin in areas where it is urgently needed today. It also includes geographic aspects (latitude and altitude), which will help make decisions about crop establishment in tropical countries, and includes a list of Good Agricultural and Collection Practices for A. annua.

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Overall production of artemisinin in various cultivars developed in laboratories achieved ~1-2% dry weight.
“Overall production of artemisinin in other various cultivars developed in laboratories achieved ~ 1-2% dry weight (Ferreira et al. 2005; Brisibe et al. 2012).”
From Enhancing artemisinin content in and delivery from Artemisia annua: a review of alternative, classical, and transgenic approaches (2021) · cites this paper as Ferreira et al. 2005

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Figueira, G. M. (1996) · Acta Horticulturae · doi:10.17660/actahortic.1996.426.62 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
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Herbicide Inputs for a New Agronomic Crop, Annual Wormwood (Artemisia annua)
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POST-HARVEST DRYING TREATMENT EFFECTS ON AMTIMALARIAL CONSTITUENTS OF ARTEMIASIA ANNUA L.
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Marchese, J. A., Casiraghi, V., Lira, R., Tedesco, Â. C., & Rehder, V. L. G. (2002) · Acta Horticulturae · doi:10.17660/actahortic.2002.569.45 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
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Industrial Processing of Vegetable Seeds
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THE EFFECT OF BAND PLACED NITROGEN AND PHOSPHORUS FERTILISER ON THE YIELD OF POPPIES (PAPAVER SOMNIFERUM L.) GROWN ON KRASNOZEM SOIL
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The effect of Sclerotinia stem infection on morphine production and distribution in poppy (Papaver somniferum L.) plants
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Seleção, melhoramento e nutrição da Artemisia annua L., para cultivo em região intertropical
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Le fanage au champ d'Artemisia annua L.: elever la teneur en artemisinine et abaisser les couts de production
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WELCOMING ADDRESS
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Flavonoids from Artemisia annua L. as Antioxidants and Their Potential Synergism with Artemisinin against Malaria and Cancer
Ferreira, J., Luthria, D. L., Sasaki, T., & Heyerick, A. (2010) · Molecules · doi:10.3390/molecules15053135 · Cited by 532 · see citing works
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Plant growth regulator mediated consequences of secondary metabolites in medicinal plants
Jamwal, K., Bhattacharya, S., & Puri, S. (2018) · Journal of Applied Research on Medicinal and Aromatic Plants · doi:10.1016/j.jarmap.2017.12.003 · Cited by 263 · see citing works
Artemisinin production in Artemisia annua: studies in planta and results of a novel delivery method for treating malaria and other neglected diseases
Weathers, P. J., Arsenault, P. R., Covello, P. S., McMickle, A., Teoh, K. H., & Reed, D. W. (2010) · Phytochemistry Reviews · doi:10.1007/s11101-010-9166-0 · Cited by 202 · see citing works
A Review of Biotechnological Artemisinin Production in Plants
Ikram, N. K. K., & Simonsen, H. T. (2017) · Frontiers in Plant Science · doi:10.3389/fpls.2017.01966 · Cited by 130 · see citing works
Artemisia Species: From Traditional Medicines to Modern Antimalarials—and Back Again
Willcox, M. L. (2009) · The Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine · doi:10.1089/acm.2008.0327 · Cited by 121 · see citing works
Biology, Genome Evolution, Biotechnological Issues and Research Including Applied Perspectives in Artemisia (Asteraceae)
Vallès, J., Garcia, S., Hidalgo, O., Martín, J., Pellicer, J., Sanz, M., & Garnatje, T. (2011) · Advances in botanical research · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-385851-1.00015-9 · Cited by 120 · see citing works
Differential transcriptome analysis of glandular and filamentous trichomes in Artemisia annua
Soetaert, S. S., Van Neste, C. M., Vandewoestyne, M. L., Head, S. R., Goossens, A., Van Nieuwerburgh, F. C., & Deforce, D. L. (2013) · BMC Plant Biology · doi:10.1186/1471-2229-13-220 · Cited by 109 · see citing works
Salicylic acid acts as potent enhancer of growth, photosynthesis and artemisinin production in Artemisia annua L.
Aftab, T., Masroor, M., Khan, A. A., Idrees, M., Naeem, M., & Moinuddin (2010) · Journal of Crop Science and Biotechnology · doi:10.1007/s12892-010-0040-3 · Cited by 109 · see citing works
Effectiveness of two arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi on concentrations of essential oil and artemisinin in three accessions of Artemisia annua L.
Chaudhary, V., Kapoor, R., & Bhatnagar, A. K. (2008) · Applied Soil Ecology · doi:10.1016/j.apsoil.2008.04.003 · Cited by 108 · see citing works
Anti-inflammatory effect and modulation of cytochrome P450 activities by Artemisia annua tea infusions in human intestinal Caco-2 cells
de Magalhães, P. M., Dupont, I. E., Hendrickx, A., Joly, A., Raas, T., Dessy, S., Sergent, T., & Schneider, Y. (2012) · Food Chemistry · doi:10.1016/j.foodchem.2012.02.195 · Cited by 98 · see citing works
Stimulation of crop productivity, photosynthesis and artemisinin production inArtemisia annuaL. by triacontanol and gibberellic acid application
Aftab, T., Khan, M. M. A., Idrees, M., Naeem, M., Singh, M., & Ram, M. (2010) · Journal of Plant Interactions · doi:10.1080/17429141003647137 · Cited by 97 · see citing works
Analysis of underivatized artemisinin and related sesquiterpene lactones by high‐performance liquid chromatography with ultraviolet detection
Ferreira, J., & Gonzalez, J. M. (2008) · Phytochemical Analysis · doi:10.1002/pca.1101 · Cited by 78 · see citing works
Self-citation
Enhancing artemisinin content in and delivery from Artemisia annua: a review of alternative, classical, and transgenic approaches
Wani, K. I., Choudhary, S., Zehra, A., Naeem, M., Weathers, P., & Aftab, T. (2021) · Planta · doi:10.1007/s00425-021-03676-3 · Cited by 74 · see citing works
Dried-leaf Artemisia annua : A practical malaria therapeutic for developing countries?
Weathers, P. J. (2014) · World Journal of Pharmacology · doi:10.5497/wjp.v3.i4.39 · Cited by 72 · see citing works
Enhancement of artemisinin concentration and yield in response to optimization of nitrogen and potassium supply to Artemisia annua
Davies, M. J., Atkinson, C. J., Burns, C., Woolley, J. G., Hipps, N. A., Arroo, R., Dungey, N., Robinson, T., Brown, P., Flockart, I., et al. (2009) · Annals of Botany · doi:10.1093/aob/mcp126 · Cited by 71 · see citing works
Boron Induced Oxidative Stress, Antioxidant Defence Response and Changes in Artemisinin Content in Artemisia annua L.
Aftab, T., Khan, M. M. A., Idrees, M., Naeem, M., & Ram, M. (2010) · Journal of Agronomy and Crop Science · doi:10.1111/j.1439-037x.2010.00427.x · Cited by 81 · see citing works
Potential Ecological Roles of Artemisinin Produced by Artemisia annua L.
Knudsmark Jessing, K., Duke, S. O., & Cedergreeen, N. (2014) · Journal of Chemical Ecology · doi:10.1007/s10886-014-0384-6 · Cited by 69 · see citing works
Drying Affects Artemisinin, Dihydroartemisinic Acid, Artemisinic Acid, and the Antioxidant Capacity of Artemisia annua L. Leaves
Ferreira, J. F. S., & Luthria, D. L. (2010) · Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry · doi:10.1021/jf903222j · Cited by 68 · see citing works
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Artemisinin biosynthesis in Artemisia annua and metabolic engineering: questions, challenges, and perspectives
Xie, D.-Y., Ma, D.-M., Judd, R., & Jones, A. L. (2016) · Phytochemistry Reviews · doi:10.1007/s11101-016-9480-2 · Cited by 63 · see citing works
Effects of artemisinin and Artemisia extracts on Haemonchus contortus in gerbils (Meriones unguiculatus)
Squires, J. M., Ferreira, J., Lindsay, D. S., & Zajac, A. M. (2010) · Veterinary Parasitology · doi:10.1016/j.vetpar.2010.09.011 · Cited by 62 · see citing works
Self-citation
Phylogeny and biogeography of Artemisia subgenus Seriphidium (Asteraceae: Anthemideae)
Malik, S., Vitales, D., Hayat, M. Q., Александрович, К. А., Garnatje, T., & Vallès, J. (2017) · Taxon · doi:10.12705/664.8 · Cited by 59 · see citing works
Artemisinin-based antimalarial research: application of biotechnology to the production of artemisinin, its mode of action, and the mechanism of resistance of Plasmodium parasites
Muangphrom, P., Seki, H., Fukushima, E. O., & Muranaka, T. (2016) · Journal of Natural Medicines · doi:10.1007/s11418-016-1008-y · Cited by 59 · see citing works
Secondary Metabolites Isolated from Artemisia afra and Artemisia annua and Their Anti-Malarial, Anti-Inflammatory and Immunomodulating Properties—Pharmacokinetics and Pharmacodynamics: A Review
Shinyuy, L. M., Loe, G. E., Jansen, O., Mamede, L., Ledoux, A., Noukimi, S. F., Abenwie, S. N., Ghogomu, S. M., Souopgui, J., Robert, A. R., et al. (2023) · Metabolites · doi:10.3390/metabo13050613 · Cited by 58 · see citing works
The Use of Combining Ability Analysis to Identify Elite Parents for Artemisia annua F1 Hybrid Production
Townsend, T., Segura, V., Chigeza, G., Penfield, T., Rae, A., Harvey, D., Bowles, D., & Graham, I. A. (2013) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0061989 · Cited by 56 · see citing works
Global assessment of the distribution and conservation status of a key medicinal plant (Artemisia annua L.): The roles of climate and anthropogenic activities
Wang, D., Shi, C., Khan, A., Kwon, S., Pan, L., Zhu, Y., & Yang, X. (2022) · The Science of The Total Environment · doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.153378 · Cited by 55 · see citing works
Selection and Clonal Propagation of High Artemisinin Genotypes of Artemisia annua
Wetzstein, H. Y., Porter, J. A., Janick, J., Ferreira, J. F. S., & Mutui, T. M. (2018) · Frontiers in Plant Science · doi:10.3389/fpls.2018.00358 · Cited by 49 · see citing works
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Degradation and ecotoxicity of the biomedical drug artemisinin in soil
Sjøholm, K. K., Nina Cedergreen, G., Jensen, J., & Hansen, H. C. B. (2009) · Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry · doi:10.1897/08-153r.1 · Cited by 48 · see citing works
Anthelmintic activity of Artemisia annua L. extracts in vitro and the effect of an aqueous extract and artemisinin in sheep naturally infected with gastrointestinal nematodes
Cala, A., Ferreira, J., Chagas, A. C. D. S., Gonzalez, J. M., Rodrigues, R. A. F., Foglio, M. A., Oliveira, M. C. D. S., Sousa, I. M. D. O., Magalhães, P. M., & Barioni, W. (2014) · Parasitology Research · doi:10.1007/s00436-014-3891-z · Cited by 47 · see citing works
Self-citation
Self-assembled biotransesterified cyclodextrins as Artemisinin nanocarriers – I: Formulation, lyoavailability and in vitro antimalarial activity assessment
Yaméogo, J. B. G., Gèze, A., Choisnard, L., Putaux, J., Gansané, A., Sirima, S. B., Semdé, R., & Wouessidjewe, D. (2011) · European Journal of Pharmaceutics and Biopharmaceutics · doi:10.1016/j.ejpb.2011.12.007 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
Antimalarial drug discovery: screening of Brazilian medicinal plants and purified compounds
Krettli, A. U. (2009) · Expert Opinion on Drug Discovery · doi:10.1517/17530050802678127 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
AaSPL9 affects glandular trichomes initiation by positively regulating expression of AaHD1 in Artemisia annua L.
He, Y., Fu, X., Li, L., Sun, X., Tang, K., & Zhao, J. (2021) · Plant Science · doi:10.1016/j.plantsci.2021.111172 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
Artemisinins in Combating Viral Infections Like SARS-CoV-2, Inflammation and Cancers and Options to Meet Increased Global Demand
Kalalagh, K. F., Kashkooli, A. B., Babaei, A., Rezaei, A., & van der Krol, A. R. (2022) · Frontiers in Plant Science · doi:10.3389/fpls.2022.780257 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
Development and validation of a simple thin layer chromatographic method for the analysis of artemisinin in Artemisia annua L. plant extracts
Marchand, E., Atemnkeng, M. A., Vanermen, S., & Plaizier-vercammen, J. A. (2007) · Biomedical Chromatography · doi:10.1002/bmc.953 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
Variation in terpenoids in leaves of Artemisia annua grown under different LED spectra resulting in diverse antimalarial activities against Plasmodium falciparum
Sankhuan, D., Niramolyanun, G., Kangwanrangsan, N., Nakano, M., & Supaibulwatana, K. (2022) · BMC Plant Biology · doi:10.1186/s12870-022-03528-6 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
Characterization of development and artemisinin biosynthesis in self-pollinated Artemisia annua plants
Alejos-Gonzalez, F., Qu, G., Zhou, L.-L., Saravitz, C. H., Shurtleff, J. L., & Xie, D.-Y. (2011) · Planta · doi:10.1007/s00425-011-1430-z · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Loss of artemisinin produced by Artemisia annua L. to the soil environment
Jessing, K. K., Nina Cedergreen, G., Mayer, P., Libous-Bailey, L., Strobel, B. W., Rimando, A. M., & Duke, S. O. (2012) · Industrial Crops and Products · doi:10.1016/j.indcrop.2012.06.033 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
The discovery of Artemisia annua L. in the Shengjindian cemetery, Xinjiang, China and its implications for early uses of traditional Chinese herbal medicine qinghao
Liu, H., Tian, X., Zhang, Y., Wang, C., & Jiang, H. (2013) · Journal of Ethnopharmacology · doi:10.1016/j.jep.2012.12.044 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
Simultaneous use of irradiated sodium alginate and nitrogen and phosphorus fertilizers enhance growth, biomass and artemisinin biosynthesis in Artemisia annua L.
Aftab, T., Naeem, M., Idrees, M., Khan, M. M. A., Moinuddin, M., & Varshney, L. (2016) · Journal of Applied Research on Medicinal and Aromatic Plants · doi:10.1016/j.jarmap.2016.05.001 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
Monitoring of Artemisinin, Dihydroartemisinin, and Artemether in Environmental Matrices Using High-Performance Liquid Chromatography–Tandem Mass Spectrometry (LC-MS/MS)
Sjøholm, K. K., Juhler, R. K., & Strobel, B. W. (2011) · Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry · doi:10.1021/jf2027632 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
Adaptation and agronomic performance of Artemisia annua L. under lowland humid tropical conditions
Brisibe, E. A., Udensi, O., Chukwurah, P. N., de Magalhäes, P. M., Figueira, G. M., & Ferreira, J. F. S. (2012) · Industrial Crops and Products · doi:10.1016/j.indcrop.2012.02.018 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
Self-citation
In vitro Mass Propagation of Artemisia (Artemisia annua L.) cv: Anamed
Hailu, T., Abera, B., & Mariam, G. (2014) · Plant Tissue Culture and Biotechnology · doi:10.3329/ptcb.v23i2.17518 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
Artemisinin production strategies for industrial scale: Current progress and future directions
Qamar, F., Ashrafi, K., Singh, A., Dash, P. K., & Abdin, M. Z. (2024) · Industrial Crops and Products · doi:10.1016/j.indcrop.2024.118937 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
In vitro susceptibility of Plasmodium falciparum Welch field isolates to infusions prepared from Artemisia annua L. cultivated in the Brazilian Amazon
Silva, L. F. R. E., de Magalhães, P. M., Costa, M. R. F., Alecrim, M. D. G. C., Chaves, F. C. M., Hidalgo, A. D. F., Pohlit, A. M., & Vieira, P. P. (2012) · Memórias do Instituto Oswaldo Cruz · doi:10.1590/s0074-02762012000700004 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
Mapping Worldwide Environmental Suitability for Artemisia annua L.
Ding, F., Ma, T., Hao, M.-M., Wang, Q., Chen, S., Wang, D., Huang, L.-Q., Zhang, X., & Jiang, D. (2020) · Sustainability · doi:10.3390/su12041309 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
Seasonal and Differential Sesquiterpene Accumulation in Artemisia annua Suggest Selection Based on Both Artemisinin and Dihydroartemisinic Acid may Increase Artemisinin in planta
Ferreira, J. F. S., Benedito, V. A., Sandhu, D., Marchese, J. A., & Liu, S. (2018) · Frontiers in Plant Science · doi:10.3389/fpls.2018.01096 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
Self-citation
Increases in leaf artemisinin concentration in Artemisia annua in response to the application of phosphorus and boron
Davies, M. J., Atkinson, C. J., Burns, C., Arroo, R., & Woolley, J. (2011) · Industrial Crops and Products · doi:10.1016/j.indcrop.2011.05.002 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
Evaluation of Artemisia annua infusion efficacy for the treatment of malaria in Plasmodium chabaudi chabaudi infected mice
Atemnkeng, M. A., Chimanuka, B., Dejaegher, B., Heyden, Y. V., & Plaizier-vercammen, J. A. (2009) · Experimental Parasitology · doi:10.1016/j.exppara.2009.04.004 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
Deciphering transcriptome profiles of tetraploid Artemisia annua plants with high artemisinin content
Xia, J., Yan, J., Wang, Y., & Wang, J. (2018) · Plant Physiology and Biochemistry · doi:10.1016/j.plaphy.2018.06.018 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Effects of Aluminium Exposures on Growth, Photosynthetic Efficiency, Lipid Peroxidation, Antioxidant Enzymes and Artemisinin Content of Artemisia annua L.
Aftab, T., Khan, M. M. A., Idrees, M., Naeem, M., & Moinuddin, M. (2010) · The Journal of Phytology · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Silencing amorpha-4,11-diene synthase Genes in Artemisia annua Leads to FPP Accumulation
Catania, T. M., Branigan, C. A., Stawniak, N., Hodson, J., Harvey, D., Larson, T. R., Czechowski, T., & Graham, I. A. (2018) · Frontiers in Plant Science · doi:10.3389/fpls.2018.00547 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Building a golden triangle for the production and use of artemisinin derivatives against falciparum malaria in Africa
Brisibe, E. A., Uyoh, E. A., Brisibe, F., & Magalhães, P. M. (2008) · AFRICAN JOURNAL OF BIOTECHNOLOGY · doi:10.5897/ajb08.076 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Symbiotic fungi in roots of Artemisia annua with special reference to endophytic colonizers
Yuan, Z., Chen, Y. C., & Ma, X. J. (2011) · Plant Biosystems - An International Journal Dealing with all Aspects of Plant Biology · doi:10.1080/11263504.2010.544863 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
Determination, solvent extraction, and purification of artemisinin from Artemisia annua L.
Babacan, Ü., Cengiz, M. F., Bouali, M., Tongur, T., Mutlu, S. S., & Gülmez, E. (2021) · Journal of Applied Research on Medicinal and Aromatic Plants · doi:10.1016/j.jarmap.2021.100363 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Historical and experimental evidence for enhanced concentration of artemesinin, a global anti-malarial treatment, with recent and projected increases in atmospheric carbon dioxide
Zhu, C., Zeng, Q., McMichael, A. J., Ebi, K. L., Ni, K., Khan, A. S., Zhu, J., Liu, G., Zhang, X., Cheng, L., et al. (2015) · Climatic Change · doi:10.1007/s10584-015-1421-3 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Artemisinin accumulation and enhanced net photosynthetic rate in Qinghao (Artemisia annua L.) hardened in vitro in enriched-CO2 photoautotrophic conditions
Supaibulwatana, K., Kuntawunginn, W., Cha–um, S., & Kirdmanee, C. (2011) · Plant Omics · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Efficient Somatic Embryogenesis and Organogenesis of Self-Pollination &lt;i&gt;Artemisia annua&lt;/i&gt; Progeny and Artemisinin Formation in Regenerated Plants
Alejos-Gonzalez, F., Perkins, K., Winston, M. I., & Xie, D.-Y. (2013) · American Journal of Plant Sciences · doi:10.4236/ajps.2013.411274 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Artemisinin content and DNA profiling of Artemisia species of Manipur
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Cultivation and genetics of Artemisia annua for increased production of the anti-malarial artemisinin
Ferreira, J. F. S., Laughlin, J. C., Delabays, N., & Magalhães, P. M. D. (2016)
Self-citation

Authors: Ferreira, J. F. S., Laughlin, J. C., Delabays, N., & de Magalhães, P. M.
Corresponding author: Ferreira, J.F.S.
ORCID: Ferreira, J.F.S.
Venue: Plant Genetic Resources
Publisher: Cambridge University Press (CUP)
Published: 2005-08
Volume: 3
Issue: 2
Pages: 206-229
ISSN: 1479-2621 (ISSN-L)
1479-263X
DOI: 10.1079/pgr200585
OpenAlex: W2152639474
Cited by: 130
References: 115
Citations by year: 2026: 6 · 2025: 2 · 2024: 4 · 2023: 8 · 2022: 11 · 2021: 5 · 2020: 3 · 2019: 5 · 2018: 8 · 2017: 2 · 2016: 5 · 2015: 5 · 2014: 9 · 2013: 12 · 2012: 9
FWCI: 1.00
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Licence: www.cambridge.org/core/terms (unspecified, 560 d)
Locations: Plant Genetic Resources (publishedVersion)
Topics: Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Molecular Biology › Plant biochemistry and biosynthesis
Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Cancer Research › Sesquiterpenes and Asteraceae Studies
Life Sciences › Agricultural and Biological Sciences › Agronomy and Crop Science › Agricultural Productivity and Crop Improvement
Keywords: Artemisia annua, artemisinin, artemisinin production, large-scale farming, Plasmodium falciparum, multidrug-resistant malaria, genetic improvement, crop cultivation, Good Agricultural and Collection Practices

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Cultivation and genetics of Artemisia annua L. for increased production of the antimalarial artemisinin

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