Medial prefrontal activity predicts memory for self

Macrae, C. N.

doi:10.1093/cercor/bhh025

Cited by 581Memory Processes and InfluencesMemory and Neural MechanismsCognitive Functions and Memory

Medial prefrontal activity predicts memory for self

Macrae, C. N.·2004·Cerebral Cortex

DOI 10.1093/cercor/bhh025

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Abstract

The ability to remember the past depends on cognitive operations that are recruited when information is initially encountered. In the current experiment, we investigated neural processes that subserve the memorability of a fundamental class of social information: self-knowledge. Participants evaluated the extent to which a series of personality characteristics were self-descriptive. Brain activation was measured using event-related functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) and contrasted based on: (i) whether each word was later remembered or forgotten; and (ii) whether or not each item was judged to be self-relevant. Results revealed that activity in medial prefrontal cortex predicted both subsequent memory performance and judgements of self-relevance. These findings extend current understanding of the nature and functioning of human memory.

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vMPFC is also engaged during tasks that require participants to introspect about their own mental experiences.
“Critically, this vMPFC region also has been observed repeatedly during tasks that require participants to introspect about their own mental experiences (15-18)”
From Repetition suppression of ventromedial prefrontal activity during judgments of self and others (2008) · cites this paper as [16]
A vMPFC region was obtained from the random effects contrast of self > other trials in the explicit self-reference task.
“Consistent with earlier studies (15-18), a single region was obtained from the random effects contrast of self > other trials located in vMPFC (Fig. 1).”
From Repetition suppression of ventromedial prefrontal activity during judgments of self and others (2008) · cites this paper as [16]
Using two different sets of contrasts, we identified ROIs in vMPFC that, consistent with earlier studies of self-reference (15-18), responded preferentially during trials that required introspection about one's own mental characteristics.
“Using two different sets of contrasts, we identified ROIs in vMPFC that, consistent with earlier studies of self-reference (15-18), responded preferentially during trials that required introspection about one's own mental characteristics.”
From Repetition suppression of ventromedial prefrontal activity during judgments of self and others (2008) · cites this paper as [16]
Remembered items induced activation in dmPFC, lateral prefrontal cortex, and bilateral hippocampus/parahippocampal gyrus compared to forgotten items.
“Macrae et al. [2004] found remembered items induced activation in dmPFC, lateral prefrontal cortex, and bilateral hippocampus/parahippocampal gyrus when compared to forgotten items”
From Oxytocin blurs the self-other distinction during trait judgments and reduces medial prefrontal cortex responses: Oxytocin Blurs Self-Other Distinction (2016) · cites this paper as Macrae et al., 2004
The self-descriptive versus nonself-descriptive contrast revealed activation in dmPFC during retrieval of visually presented self- and nonself-related adjectives describing personality traits.
“while the self-descriptive versus nonselfdescriptive contrast revealed activation in the dmPFC during the retrieval of visually presented self-and nonselfrelated adjectives describing personality traits [Macrae et al., 2004].”
From Oxytocin blurs the self-other distinction during trait judgments and reduces medial prefrontal cortex responses: Oxytocin Blurs Self-Other Distinction (2016) · cites this paper as Macrae et al., 2004

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Are there theory of mind regions in the brain? A review of the neuroimaging literature
Carrington, S., & Bailey, A. (2009) · Human Brain Mapping · doi:10.1002/hbm.20671 · Cited by 679 · see citing works
“The simulation proposal of Mitchell et al. in fact arises from previous reports of vmPFC involvement in self-referential thinking when reporting one’s own ‘‘internal’’ states [Kelley et al., 2002; Macrae et al., 2004] or when adopting a first-person perspective [Vogeley et al., 2001].”
Background
Neural activity that predicts subsequent memory and forgetting: A meta-analysis of 74 fMRI studies
Kim, H. (2010) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2010.09.045 · Cited by 605 · see citing works
“Consistent with this view, research has shown increased activity in the medial PFC, a key component of the default-mode network, is not detrimental, but beneficial, to encoding self-referential information (Macrae et al., 2004) or episodes of social cognition (Harvey et al.”
Background
Prefrontal Cortex and Long-Term Memory Encoding: An Integrative Review of Findings from Neuropsychology and Neuroimaging
Blumenfeld, R., & Ranganath, C. (2007) · The Neuroscientist · doi:10.1177/1073858407299290 · Cited by 634 · see citing works
The proactive brain: memory for predictions
Bar, M. (2009) · Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences · doi:10.1098/rstb.2008.0310 · Cited by 583 · see citing works
“…Wagner & Shannon 2005 ); decision-making (Fleck et al. 2006); emotional processing (Maddock 1999); self-referential processing (Kelley et al. 2002; Macrae & Moran 2004); social interactions (Iacoboni et al. 2004); and mental state attribution (i.e. theory of mind; Saxe & Kanwisher 2003; Frith &…”
Background
Disclosing information about the self is intrinsically rewarding
Tamir, D. I., & Mitchell, J. P. (2012) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.1202129109 · Cited by 563 · see citing works
Culture-sensitive neural substrates of human cognition: a transcultural neuroimaging approach
Han, S., & Northoff, G. (2008) · Nature Reviews Neuroscience · doi:10.1038/nrn2456 · Cited by 577 · see citing works
The neural correlates of direct and reflected self-knowledge
Ochsner, K. N., Beer, J. S., Robertson, E. R., Cooper, J. C., Gabrieli, J. D. E., Kihsltrom, J. F., & D'Esposito, M. (2005) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2005.06.069 · Cited by 562 · see citing works
“…words describe the self as compared to a non-close other (George Bush), but both types of judgments recruit other regions involved in memory retrieval, such as left inferior prefrontal cortex (PFC), to the same degree as the other-referential judgments (Kelley et al., 2002; Macrae et al., 2004).”
BackgroundInfluential
Failing to deactivate: Resting functional abnormalities in autism
Kennedy, D. P., Redcay, E., & Courchesne, E. (2006) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.0600674103 · Cited by 543 · see citing works
Emotion and autobiographical memory
Holland, A. C., & Kensinger, E. A. (2010) · Physics of Life Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.plrev.2010.01.006 · Cited by 540 · see citing works
“For instance, when information is encoded in a self-referential fashion – when people focus on how information relates to them and on how information makes them feel – there are distinct mechanisms engaged which boost the strength of the encoded memory and may make it more resilient to forgetting (Kelley et al., 2002;…”
Remembering Emotional Experiences: The Contribution of Valence and Arousal
Kensinger, E. (2004) · Reviews in the Neurosciences · doi:10.1515/revneuro.2004.15.4.241 · Cited by 570 · see citing works
“For example, when individuals are asked to process stimuli in regard to themselves (e.g., deciding whether words would describe them), memory is enhanced as compared to when the items are processed for meaning, but not in relation to the self (Rogers et al., 1977 [#71]; Macrae et al., 2004 [#54]).”
Background
Self-reflection and the brain: A theoretical review and meta-analysis of neuroimaging studies with implications for schizophrenia
van der Meer, L., Costafreda, S., Aleman, A., & David, A. S. (2010) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2009.12.004 · Cited by 520 · see citing works
“…or someone famous, while presented with trait words (D'Argembeau et al., 2007; Gutchess et al., 2007; Heatherton et al., 2006; Kelley et al., 2002; Macrae et al., 2004; Ochsner et al., 2005; Schmitz et al., 2004; Schmitz et al., 2006; Zhu et al., 2007), trait 2 The terms ventral and dorsal…”
Background
Neuroanatomical evidence for distinct cognitive and affective components of self
Moran, J. M., Macrae, C. N., Heatherton, T. F., Wyland, C. L., & Kelley, W. M. (2006) · Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1162/jocn.2006.18.9.1586 · Cited by 501 · see citing works
“MPFC activity has been noted in many studies in which task demands encourage introspection or selfreflection (Macrae et al., 2004; Johnson et al., 2002; Kelley et al., 2002; Gusnard et al., 2001; Craik et al., 1999).”
Background
Self, self-concept, and identity.
Oyserman, D., Elmore, K., & Smith, G. C. M. (2012) · Cited by 511 · see citing works
Development of the self-concept during adolescence
Sebastian, C. L., Heyes, S. B., & Blakemore, S. (2008) · Trends in Cognitive Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.tics.2008.07.008 · Cited by 507 · see citing works
The intrinsic functional organization of the brain is altered in autism
Kennedy, D. P., & Courchesne, E. (2007) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2007.10.052 · Cited by 495 · see citing works
“, 2004), and self and otherperson reflection (Gusnard et al., 2001; Johnson et al., 2002; Kelley et al., 2002; Kjaer et al., 2002; Fossati et al., 2003; Lou et al., 2004; Macrae et al., 2004; D’Argembeau et al., 2005; Mitchell et al., 2005a,b; Ochsner et al., 2005; Moran et al., 2006) (for a meta-analysis of self stud…”
Background
Social cognition and the cerebellum: A meta-analysis of over 350 fMRI studies
Overwalle, F. V., Baetens, K., Mariën, P., & Vandekerckhove, M. (2014) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2013.09.033 · Cited by 428 · see citing works
Autobiographical memory and sense of self.
Prebble, S. C., Addis, D. R., & Tippett, L. J. (2013) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/a0030146 · Cited by 466 · see citing works
“W. (1988). The content and organisation of autobiographical”
Background
Self-Referential Cognition and Empathy in Autism
Lombardo, M. V., Barnes, J. L., Wheelwright, S. J., & Baron‐Cohen, S. (2007) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0000883 · Cited by 439 · see citing works
“Within the typically developing brain, both self-referential cognitive processing and mentalizing are consistently localized to neural processing in cortical midline structures (CMS) of the brain such as the medial prefrontal cortex (MPFC) and posterior cingulate/precuneus (PC)[34,35,36,37,38,39] (see Figure 1).”
Background
Neuroscience of Self and Self-Regulation
Heatherton, T. F. (2010) · Annual Review of Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.121208.131616 · Cited by 443 · see citing works
“Macrae et al. (2004a) noted that a frustrating feature of this debate was that all theories made the same behavioral prediction (e.g., superior memory for material Annu Rev Psychol.”
The neural bases of empathic accuracy
Zaki, J., Weber, J., Bolger, N., & Ochsner, K. (2009) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.0902666106 · Cited by 422 · see citing works
“More generally, further investigation may be able to identify distinct regions whose activity predicts accuracy for different types of social cognitive judgments, which has been the case in subsequent memory research, for example, where the activity of different brain regions independently predicts successful encoding…”
Background
Distinct Regions of the Medial Prefrontal Cortex Are Associated with Self-referential Processing and Perspective Taking
D'Argembeau, A., Ruby, P., Collette, F., Degueldre, C., Balteau, E., Luxen, A., Maquet, P., & Salmon, E. (2007) · Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1162/jocn.2007.19.6.935 · Cited by 495 · see citing works
“For instance, several studies have investigated the brain regions recruited when people evaluate the self-descriptiveness of adjectives or sentences describing personality traits (Heatherton et al., 2006; Ochsner et al., 2005; Lieberman et al., 2004; Lou et al., 2004; Macrae et al., 2004; Schmitz et al., 2004; Fossati…”
Background
Associations and dissociations between default and self-reference networks in the human brain
Whitfield-Gabrieli, S., Moran, J. M., Nieto-Castañón, A., Triantafyllou, C., Saxe, R., & Gabrieli, J. D. E. (2011) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2010.11.048 · Cited by 394 · see citing works
“, 2006), and is greater at both encoding (Macrae et al., 2004) and retrieval (Fossati et al.”
BackgroundInfluential
Inferences about mental states
Mitchell, J. P. (2009) · Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences · doi:10.1098/rstb.2008.0318 · Cited by 387 · see citing works
“…in earlier studies of self-referential thought, in which participants were instructed to report on their own, first-person mental states, preferences or personality traits ( Johnson et al. 2002; Kelley et al. 2002; Macrae et al. 2004; Schmitz et al. 2004; Vogeley et al. 2004; Moran et al. 2006).”
Background
Medial prefrontal activity differentiates self from close others
Heatherton, T. F., Wyland, C. L., Macrae, C. N., Demos, K. E., Denny, B. T., & Kelley, W. M. (2006) · Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience · doi:10.1093/scan/nsl001 · Cited by 380 · see citing works
“The present study sought to determine whether the MPFC activity observed during self-reference tasks in previous work (Craik et al., 1999; Johnson et al., 2002; Kelley et al., 2002; Macrae et al., 2004b; Ochsner et al., 2004; Schmitz et al., 2004) would extend to the judgments about others if the target was a personal…”
BackgroundMethodInfluential
Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex Promotes Long-Term Memory Formation through Its Role in Working Memory Organization
Blumenfeld, R. S., & Ranganath, C. (2006) · The Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.2353-05.2006 · Cited by 383 · see citing works
Is Self Special? A Critical Review of Evidence From Experimental Psychology and Cognitive Neuroscience.
Gillihan, S. J., & Farah, M. J. (2005) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.131.1.76 · Cited by 470 · see citing works
“Traits (Figure 3) (continued) Macrae et al. (2004) Greater activation for words judged to be selfdescriptive Medial PFC Medial PFC”
Background
From the Revolution to Embodiment
Glenberg, A. M., Witt, J. K., & Metcalfe, J. (2013) · Perspectives on Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/1745691613498098 · Cited by 377 · see citing works
Medial prefrontal cortex and the self in major depression
Lemogne, C., Delaveau, P., Freton, M., Guionnet, S., & Fossati, P. (2012) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2010.11.034 · Cited by 345 · see citing works
Posterior Parietal Cortex and Episodic Encoding: Insights from fMRI Subsequent Memory Effects and Dual Attention Theory
Uncapher, M. R., & Wagner, A. (2008) · Neurobiology of Learning and Memory · doi:10.1016/j.nlm.2008.10.011 · Cited by 330 · see citing works
Dissociating medial frontal and posterior cingulate activity during self-reflection
Johnson, M. K., Raye, C. L., Mitchell, K., Touryan, S. R., Greene, E. J., & Nolen–Hoeksema, S. (2006) · Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience · doi:10.1093/scan/nsl004 · Cited by 336 · see citing works
“As noted in the introduction, activity in various regions of medial anterior and posterior cortex has been associated with self-referential processing (e.g. Macrae et al., 2004; Ochsner et al., 2005; Vogt and Laureys, 2005; Cavanna and Trimble, 2006).”
Background
Impaired self-awareness and theory of mind: An fMRI study of mentalizing in alexithymia
Moriguchi, Y., Ohnishi, T., Lane, R. D., Maeda, M., Mori, T., Nemoto, K., Matsuda, H., & Komaki, G. (2006) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2006.04.186 · Cited by 397 · see citing works
“MPFC activity in the context of a mentalizing task has been studied by many researchers (e.g., Berthoz et al., 2002a,b; Brunet et al., 2000; Castelli et al., 2000, 2002; Ferstl and von Cramon, 2002; Fletcher et al., 1995; Goel et al., 1995; Gallagher et al., 2000; Macrae et al., 2004; Ochsner et al., 2004; Schultz et…”
Dynamic Cultural Influences on Neural Representations of the Self
Chiao, J. Y., Harada, T., Komeda, H., Li, Z., Mano, Y., Saito, D. N., Parrish, T. B., Sadato, N., & Iidaka, T. (2009) · Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1162/jocn.2009.21192 · Cited by 316 · see citing works
“This lack of correspondence between cultural priming and agreement with self-descriptions at a behavioral level in the current study is somewhat surprising given prior studies showing a positive association between self-relevant neural activity within MPFC and behavioral assays, such as enhanced recognition for self-r…”
Result
Contributions of episodic retrieval and mentalizing to autobiographical thought: evidence from functional neuroimaging, resting-state connectivity, and fMRI meta-analyses
Andrews-Hanna, J. R., Saxe, R., & Yarkoni, T. (2014) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2014.01.032 · Cited by 313 · see citing works
“…large portion of the variance in aMPFC activity during introspective tasks (Andrews-Hanna et al., 2010a), and aMPFC activity increases with perceived self-relevancy (Macrae et al., 2004; Mitchell et al., 2006; Moran et al., 2006, 2009; Benoit et al., 2010; Krienen et al., 2010; Denny et al., 2012).”
Background
Yours or mine? Ownership and memory
Cunningham, S. J., Turk, D. J., Macdonald, L. M., & Macrae, C. N. (2007) · Consciousness and Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.concog.2007.04.003 · Cited by 307 · see citing works
Overlapping and non-overlapping brain regions for theory of mind and self reflection in individual subjects
Saxe, R. R., Moran, J. M., Scholz, J., & Gabrieli, J. D. E. (2006) · Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience · doi:10.1093/scan/nsl034 · Cited by 306 · see citing works
Resting-State Brain Activity in Schizophrenia and Major Depression: A Quantitative Meta-Analysis
Kühn, S., & Gallinat, J. (2011) · Schizophrenia Bulletin · doi:10.1093/schbul/sbr151 · Cited by 287 · see citing works
“and the self-reference effect of memory.(46) The hypoactivity of schizophrenic patients in vmPFC during restingstate could be related their deficits in self-referential source memory.”
Background
Spatiotemporal Dynamics of Error Processing Dysfunctions in Major Depressive Disorder
Holmes, A. J., & Pizzagalli, D. A. (2008) · Archives of General Psychiatry · doi:10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2007.19 · Cited by 277 · see citing works
Thinking about intentions
den Ouden, H. E. M., Uta Frith, A., Frith, C., & Blakemore, S. (2005) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2005.05.001 · Cited by 279 · see citing works
“…trait adjectives that describe oneself, involves similar brain regions to those underlying the attribution of mental states to others, in particular dorsal mPFC (Happé, 2003; Johnson et al., 2002; Kelley et al., 2002; Kampe et al., 2003; Kjaer et al., 2002; Lou et al., 2004; Macrae et al., 2004).”
Background
Neural Mechanisms Associated With Food Motivation in Obese and Healthy Weight Adults
Martin, L. E., Holsen, L. M., Chambers, R. J., Bruce, A. S., Brooks, W. M., Zarcone, J. R., Butler, M. G., & Savage, C. R. (2009) · Obesity · doi:10.1038/oby.2009.220 · Cited by 278 · see citing works
“The MPFC is particularly interesting because it has also been implicated in processing other forms of self-referent information (31,32).”
Background
Are Attractive People Rewarding? Sex Differences in the Neural Substrates of Facial Attractiveness
Cloutier, J., Heatherton, T. F., Whalen, P. J., & Kelley, W. M. (2008) · Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1162/jocn.2008.20062 · Cited by 279 · see citing works
Neural basis of individualistic and collectivistic views of self
Chiao, J. Y., Harada, T., Komeda, H., Li, Z., Mano, Y., Saito, D. N., Parrish, T. B., Sadato, N., & Iidaka, T. (2008) · Human Brain Mapping · doi:10.1002/hbm.20707 · Cited by 277 · see citing works
Neuronal Correlates of Perception, Imagery, and Memory for Familiar Tunes
Herholz, S. C., Halpern, A. R., & Zatorre, R. J. (2012) · Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1162/jocn_a_00216 · Cited by 276 · see citing works
“Medial pFC is implicated in a number of different systems, including emotional processing (Phan et al., 2003), social cognition (Amodio & Frith, 2006), self-referential mental activity (Gusnard, Akbudak, Shulman, & Raichle, 2001), and memory for self ( Macrae, Moran, Heatherton, Banfield, & Kelley, 2004 ), and belongs…”
Background
Repetition suppression of ventromedial prefrontal activity during judgments of self and others
Jenkins, A. C., Macrae, C. N., & Mitchell, J. P. (2008) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.0708785105 · Cited by 266 · see citing works
Self-citation
Increased default mode network connectivity associated with meditation
Jang, J. H., Jung, W. H., Kang, D.-H., Byun, M. S., Kwon, S. J., Choi, C.-H., & Kwon, J. S. (2011) · Neuroscience Letters · doi:10.1016/j.neulet.2010.10.056 · Cited by 260 · see citing works
The Angry Brain: Neural Correlates of Anger, Angry Rumination, and Aggressive Personality
Denson, T., Pedersen, W. C., Ronquillo, J., & Nandy, A. S. (2009) · Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1162/jocn.2009.21051 · Cited by 263 · see citing works
“Indeed, the mPFC appears to be associated with the awareness and regulation of one’s negative mood (Macrae et al., 2004; Ochsner et al., 2004; Lane et al., 1997).”
Background
Neural Representations of Self versus Other: Visual-Spatial Perspective Taking and Agency in a Virtual Ball-tossing Game
David, N., Bewernick, B. H., Cohen, M. X., Newen, A., Lux, S., Fink, G. R., Shah, N. J., & Vogeley, K. (2006) · Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1162/jocn.2006.18.6.898 · Cited by 252 · see citing works
“In addition, several studies have consistently associated MPFC activity with the utilization of selfreferential stimuli (e.g., Macrae, Moran, Heatherton, Banfield, & Kelley, 2004; Ochsner et al., 2004; Kelley et al., 2002; Vogeley, Bussfeld, et al., 2001).”
Background
Developmental influences on the neural bases of responses to social rejection: Implications of social neuroscience for education
Sebastian, C. L., Tan, G. C. Y., Roiser, J. P., Viding, E., Dumontheil, I., & Blakemore, S.-J. (2011) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2010.09.063 · Cited by 250 · see citing works
“The ventral portion of mPFC commonly responds during self-evaluation (Kelley et al., 2002; Macrae et al., 2004), and selfevaluation processes are automatically triggered by social exclusion (Leary et al., 1995; Williams, 2007).”
BackgroundInfluential
Know yourself and you shall know the other to a certain extent: multiple paths of influence of self-reflection on mindreading.
Dimaggio, G., Lysaker, P. H., Carcione, A., Nicolò, G., & Semerari, A. (2008) · Consciousness and Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.concog.2008.02.005 · Cited by 232 · see citing works
Individual differences in trait rumination and the neural systems supporting cognitive reappraisal
RAY, R. D., OCHSNER, K. N., COOPER, J. C., ROBERTSON, E. R., GABRIELI, J. D. E., & GROSS, J. J. (2005) · Cognitive, Affective, & Behavioral Neuroscience · doi:10.3758/cabn.5.2.156 · Cited by 316 · see citing works
“We also observed, however, that in the condition of decreasing negative affect, rumination predicted decreases in bilateral medial prefrontal area BA 10 and adjacent anterior cingulate areas BA 24 and 32. These medial frontal areas have been implicated in emotion processing (Christoff, Ream, Geddes, & Gabrieli, 2003;…”
Result
Motor inhibition in hysterical conversion paralysis
Cojan, Y., Waber, L., Carruzzo, A., & Vuilleumier, P. O. (2009) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2009.05.023 · Cited by 234 · see citing works
“In particular, the vmPFC is not only recruited during tasks that require participants to introspect about their own mental experience or feelings (Johnson et al., 2002; Kelley et al., 2002; Macrae et al., 2004; Zysset et al., 2002), but also associated with emotion regulation (Lane, 2008; Ochsner and Gross, 2005; Simp…”
Developmental changes in the neural basis of interpreting communicative intent
Wang, A. T., Lee, S. S., Sigman, M., & Dapretto, M. (2006) · Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience · doi:10.1093/scan/nsl018 · Cited by 232 · see citing works
“The dorsal MPFC is a region associated not only with understanding the beliefs and intentions of others, but also with self-relevant attributions, feelings and memories (Gusnard et al., 2001; Vogeley et al., 2001; Kelley et al., 2002; Macrae et al., 2004; Ochsner et al., 2004).”
Background
Social Cognitive Neuroscience
Lieberman, M. D. (2010) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9780470561119.socpsy001005 · Cited by 228 · see citing works
Solving future problems: default network and executive activity associated with goal-directed mental simulations
Gerlach, K. D., Spreng, R. N., Gilmore, A. W., & Schacter, D. L. (2011) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2011.01.030 · Cited by 224 · see citing works
“A series of previous experiments has associated MPFC with selfreferential processing (D'Argembeau et al., 2007; Gutchess et al., 2007, 2010;Macrae et al., 2004), and it has been hypothesized to be important for assessing the self-relevance of any type of information or representation (Northoff et al.”
My Body or Yours? The Effect of Visual Perspective on Cortical Body Representations
Saxe, R. R., Jamal, N. I., & Powell, L. J. (2005) · Cerebral Cortex · doi:10.1093/cercor/bhi095 · Cited by 228 · see citing works
“This region was not anatomically near to regions of frontal cortex typically associated with self-identification or selfprocessing (e.g. Macrae et al., 2004).”
Background
Functional neuroimaging of belief, disbelief, and uncertainty
Harris, S., Sheth, S. A., & Cohen, M. S. (2007) · Annals of Neurology · doi:10.1002/ana.21301 · Cited by 226 · see citing works
“This contrast also showed signal in the dorsal portion of the ACC, a region that is activated when subjects judge the self-relevance of words.(21) It does not appear surprising that judgments of self-relevance % non–self-relevance and judgments of truth % falsity would invoke similar regions of processing because both…”
Background
Cortical midline involvement in autobiographical memory
Summerfield, J. J., Hassabis, D., & Maguire, E. A. (2008) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2008.09.033 · Cited by 220 · see citing works
“Manipulations involving the retrieval and judgement of self-relevant personality traits (D'Argembeau et al., 2007; Johnson et al., 2002; Kelley et al., 2002; Kjaer et al., 2002; Lou et al., 2004; Macrae et al., 2004; Moran et al., 2006), differences in viewpoint perspective (e.”
Self-Processing and the Default Mode Network: Interactions with the Mirror Neuron System
Molnar-Szakacs, I., & Uddin, L. (2013) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2013.00571 · Cited by 208 · see citing works
“…the MPFC with autobiographical memory retrieval (Gilboa, 2004; Svoboda et al., 2006), retrieval of self-referential episodes (Zysset et al., 2002), retrieval of selfgenerated versus externally presented words (Vinogradov et al., 2008), and the self-reference effect of memory (Macrae et al., 2004).”
Background
Depressive cognition: Self-reference and depth of processing
Wisco, B. E. (2009) · Clinical Psychology Review · doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2009.03.003 · Cited by 216 · see citing works
Jealousy and the threatened self: Getting to the heart of the green-eyed monster
DeSteno, D., Valdesolo, P., & Bartlett, M. Y. (2006) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.91.4.626 · Cited by 213 · see citing works
Neural Processes Supporting Young and Older Adults' Emotional Memories
Kensinger, E., & Schacter, D. (2008) · Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1162/jocn.2008.20080 · Cited by 233 · see citing works
“Because these regions have been implicated in self-referential processing (Northoff et al., 2006; Macrae et al., 2004; Kelley et al., 2002), this finding suggests that the mnemonic enhancement that older adults (but not young adults) display for positive information may result from older adults’ tendency to process po…”
Background
The resting brain and our self: Self-relatedness modulates resting state neural activity in cortical midline structures
Schneider, F., Bermpohl, F., Heinzel, A., Rotte, M., Walter, M., Tempelmann, C., Wiebking, C., Dobrowolny, H., Heinze, H. J., & Northoff, G. (2008) · Neuroscience · doi:10.1016/j.neuroscience.2008.08.014 · Cited by 209 · see citing works
Evaluating the effective connectivity of resting state networks using conditional Granger causality
Liao, W., Mantini, D., Zhang, Z., Pan, Z., Ding, J., Gong, Q., Yang, Y., & Chen, H. (2009) · Biological Cybernetics · doi:10.1007/s00422-009-0350-5 · Cited by 208 · see citing works
“Furthermore, previous task-related studies reported the SRN to be related self-knowledge (Macrae et al. 2004), self-material (Northoff and Bermpohl 2004) and SRN processing (D'Argembeau et al. 2005; for a recent metaanalysis see Northoff et al. 2006 ).”
Background
The representation of self and person knowledge in the medial prefrontal cortex
Wagner, D. D., Haxby, J. V., & Heatherton, T. F. (2012) · WIREs Cognitive Science · doi:10.1002/wcs.1183 · Cited by 201 · see citing works
Encoding-Specific Effects of Social Cognition on the Neural Correlates of Subsequent Memory
Mitchell, J. P., Macrae, C. N., & Banaji, M. R. (2004) · The Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.0481-04.2004 · Cited by 248 · see citing works
“The coordinates refer to the Montreal Neurological Institute stereotaxic space. al., 1980, 1989; Wyer et al., 1984; Srull and Wyer, 1989; but see Macrae et al., 2004).”
Background
The neural sociometer: brain mechanisms underlying state self-esteem
Eisenberger, N. I., Inagaki, T. K., Muscatell, K. A., Byrne Haltom, K. E., & Leary, M. R. (2011) · Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1162/jocn_a_00027 · Cited by 199 · see citing works
“In the present study, moment-to-moment reports of state self-esteem mapped on more closely to regions involved in distressing emotional experience (dACC, anterior insula), whereas changes in session-level self-esteem (which could be conceptualized as a more retrospective assessment) relied on regions involved in self-…”
BackgroundMethod
Aging, self-referencing, and medial prefrontal cortex
Gutchess, A. H., Kensinger, E. A., & Schacter, D. L. (2007) · Social Neuroscience · doi:10.1080/17470910701399029 · Cited by 201 · see citing works
Social psychology as a natural kind
Mitchell, J. P. (2009) · Trends in Cognitive Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.tics.2009.03.008 · Cited by 200 · see citing works
“Moreover, MPFC activity correlates with successful memory for information processed in a self-referential manner [ 18 ], suggesting that this region supports the welldocumented mnemonic benefits of linking information to the self-concept [19].”
Background
Rostral anterior cingulate cortex activity mediates the relationship between the depressive symptoms and the medial prefrontal cortex activity
Yoshimura, S., Okamoto, Y., Onoda, K., Matsunaga, M., Ueda, K., Suzuki, S.-I., & ShigetoYamawaki (2009) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2009.06.017 · Cited by 199 · see citing works
Dynamic bicultural brains: fMRI study of their flexible neural representation of self and significant others in response to culture primes
Ng, S. H., Han, S., Mao, L., & Lai, J. C. L. (2010) · Asian Journal Of Social Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.1467-839x.2010.01303.x · Cited by 195 · see citing works
“The locus of VMPFC activity under Western culture priming is consistent with that observed in previous neuroimaging studies of Western participants (Kelley et al., 2002; Macrae et al., 2004; Moran, Macrae, Heatherton, Wyland, & Kelley, 2006; Zhu et al., 2007).”
Medial cortex activity, self-reflection and depression
Johnson, M. K., Nolen-Hoeksema, S., Mitchell, K. J., & Levin, Y. (2009) · Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience · doi:10.1093/scan/nsp022 · Cited by 194 · see citing works
“, posterior cingulate cortex, precuneus) show increased activity during self-referential processing (Johnson et al., 2002; Fossati et al., 2003; Macrae et al., 2004; Ochsner et al., 2005; Vogt and Laureys, 2005; Amodio and Frith, 2006; Johnson et al., 2006; Northoff et al., 2006).”
Background
Self-esteem modulates medial prefrontal cortical responses to evaluative social feedback
Somerville, L. H., Kelley, W. M., & Heatherton, T. F. (2010) · Cerebral Cortex · doi:10.1093/cercor/bhq049 · Cited by 189 · see citing works
“2004), and retrieve autobiographical memories of past events (Macrae et al. 2004).”
Sociocultural patterning of neural activity during self-reflection
Ma, Y., Bang, D., Wang, C., Allen, M., Frith, C., Roepstorff, A., & Han, S. (2012) · Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience · doi:10.1093/scan/nss103 · Cited by 188 · see citing works
“…of stimuli (Northoff et al., 2006; Han and Northoff, 2009) since trait words rated high vs low in self-relevance increased mPFC activity (Moran et al., 2006) and mPFC activity correlated with memory performances on recall of self-related trait words (Macrae et al., 2004; Ma and Han, 2011).”
The units of thought
Bar, M., Aminoff, E., Mason, M. F., & Fenske, M. (2007) · Hippocampus · doi:10.1002/hipo.20287 · Cited by 186 · see citing works
“, 2006), emotional processing (Maddock, 1999), self-referential processing (Kelley et al., 2002; Macrae et al., 2004), social interactions (Iacoboni et al.”
Background
Dissociable effects of conscious emotion regulation strategies on explicit and implicit memory.
Dillon, D., Ritchey, M., Johnson, B., & LaBar, K. (2007) · Emotion · doi:10.1037/1528-3542.7.2.354 · Cited by 206 · see citing works
“In addition, recent neuroimaging work ( Macrae, Moran, Heatherton, Banfield, & Kelley, 2004 ) has shown that memory for self-referential adjectives is supported by medial prefrontal cortex (PFC) regions implicated in self-referential processing but not usually recruited during more standard elaborative encoding tasks…”
Background
Medial prefrontal cortex subserves diverse forms of self-reflection
Jenkins, A. C., & Mitchell, J. P. (2010) · Social Neuroscience · doi:10.1080/17470919.2010.507948 · Cited by 184 · see citing works
The role of the default mode network in component processes underlying the wandering mind
Poerio, G. L., Sormaz, M., Wang, H.-T., Margulies, D. S., Jefferies, E., & Smallwood, J. (2017) · Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience · doi:10.1093/scan/nsx041 · Cited by 184 · see citing works
“, 2013) and measures that distinguish the self from others (Macrae et al., 2004).”
BackgroundMethod
Ageing and the self-reference effect in memory
Gutchess, A. H., Kensinger, E. A., Yoon, C., & Schacter, D. L. (2007) · Memory · doi:10.1080/09658210701701394 · Cited by 180 · see citing works
“While it is possible that self-referencing is not heavily cognitively demanding, the wide extent of encoding deficits with age (Kausler, 1994) and the finding that medial prefrontal cortex is implicated in successful encoding (Macrae et al., 2004) make it likely that the availability of cognitive resources plays at le…”
Background
Self, Memory, and the Self-Reference Effect
Klein, S. B. (2012) · Personality and Social Psychology Review · doi:10.1177/1088868311434214 · Cited by 179 · see citing works
“For example, different neural localizations are found when participants are asked to process traits for self-descriptiveness (i.e., semantic-based memory judgments; Kelley et al., 2002; Macrae et al., 2004) than when asked to perform tasks that entail retrieval of personal events from episodic memory (e.”
Background
Political Neuroscience: The Beginning of a Beautiful Friendship
Jost, J. T., Nam, H. H., Amodio, D. M., & Bavel, J. J. V. (2014) · Political Psychology · doi:10.1111/pops.12162 · Cited by 176 · see citing works

Hippocampal activity is associated with self‐descriptiveness effect in memory, whereas self‐reference effect in memory depends on medial prefrontal activity
Zhu, L., Guo, X., Li, J., Zheng, L., Wang, Q., & Yang, Z. (2011) · Hippocampus · doi:10.1002/hipo.20994 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
Medial prefrontal cortex supports source memory accuracy for self-referenced items
Leshikar, E. D., & Duarte, A. (2011) · Social Neuroscience · doi:10.1080/17470919.2011.585242 · Cited by 103 · see citing works
When I think about me and simulate you: Medial rostral prefrontal cortex and self-referential processes
A, G. B., Gilbert, S. J., Emmanuelle Volle, C., & Burgess, P. W. (2009)
Neural correlates of the self-reference effect: evidence from evaluation and recognition processes
Yaoi, K., Osaka, M., & Osaka, N. (2015) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2015.00383 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
Controlled memory processes : functional interaction of the ventromedial prefrontal cortex involved in self evaluation in human
Feyers, D., Collette, F., D’Argembeau, A., Peters, F., Bastin, C., Majerus, S., & Salmon, É. (2007) · ORBi (University of Liège)

Authors: Macrae, C. N.
Affiliations: Dartmouth College (US)
Corresponding author: Macrae, C. N.
ORCID: Macrae, C. N.
Venue: Cerebral Cortex
Publisher: Oxford University Press (OUP)
Published: 2004-04-14
Volume: 14
Issue: 6
Pages: 647-654
ISSN: 1047-3211 (ISSN-L)
1460-2199
DOI: 10.1093/cercor/bhh025
OpenAlex: W2096259174
Cited by: 581
References: 56
Citations by year: 2026: 1 · 2025: 7 · 2024: 11 · 2023: 13 · 2022: 13 · 2021: 17 · 2020: 14 · 2019: 19 · 2018: 29 · 2017: 38 · 2016: 30 · 2015: 20 · 2014: 35 · 2013: 42 · 2012: 36
FWCI: 13.26
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: Cerebral Cortex (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Funders: National Institute of Mental Health (MH66720, R21MH066720)
Topics: Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory Processes and Influences
Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory and Neural Mechanisms
Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Functions and Memory
Keywords: medial prefrontal cortex, self-knowledge, self-relevance, personality traits, social memory, memory encoding, self-referential processing, event-related fMRI
MeSH terms: Adult, Brain Mapping, Cognition, Ego, Evoked Potentials, Female, Humans, Magnetic Resonance Imaging, Male, Memory, Self Concept, Statistics as Topic, Prefrontal Cortex

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Medial prefrontal activity predicts memory for self

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