Stress during pregnancy is associated with developmental outcome in infancy
Abstract
Background: Animal studies show that prenatal maternal stress may be related to cognitive impairments in offspring. Therefore, we examined whether psychological and endocrinologic measures of stress during human pregnancy predicted developmental outcome of the infant at 3 and 8 months. Method: Self‐report data about daily hassles and pregnancy‐specific anxiety and salivary cortisol levels were collected in 170 nulliparous women in early, mid‐ and late pregnancy in a prospective design, in which healthy infants born at term were followed up after birth. Results: High levels of pregnancy‐specific anxiety in mid‐pregnancy predicted lower mental and motor developmental scores at 8 months ( p < .05). High amounts of daily hassles in early pregnancy were associated with lower mental developmental scores at 8 months ( p < .05). Early morning values of cortisol in late pregnancy were negatively related to both mental and motor development at 3 months ( p < .05 and p < .005, respectively) and motor development at 8 months ( p < .01). On average a decline of 8 points on the mental and motor development scale was found. All results were adjusted for a large number of covariates. Conclusion: Stress during pregnancy appears to be one of the determinants of delay in motor and mental development in infants of 8 months of age and may be a risk factor for later developmental problems. Further systematic follow‐up of the present sample is needed to determine whether these delays are transient, persistent or even progressive.
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Stress negatively impacts the development of the unborn child regarding cognitive and motor development and temperamental and behavioural measures.
“There is also evidence that stress negatively impacts the development of the (unborn) child regarding cognitive and motor development [7, 37, 72, 81 and temperamental and behavioural measures [29].”
From The effects of a music and singing intervention during pregnancy on maternal well-being and mother-infant bonding: a randomised, controlled study. (2021) · cites this paper as [37]
Pregnancy-specific stress measures predict developmental outcomes better than general psychological distress measures.
“Further evidence suggests that measures of pregnancy specific stress are better than measures of generalized psychological distress for predicting developmental outcomes including, fetal behavior (DiPietro et al., 2002), infant cognitive and motor development (Huizink et al., 2003; Dipietro et al., 2006; Davis & Sandman, in press) and infant emotional regulation (Dipietro et al., 2006).”
From High pregnancy anxiety during mid-gestation is associated with decreased gray matter density in 6-9-year-old children. (2010) · cites this paper as Huizink et al., 2003
Pregnancy anxiety has higher predictive quality for birth outcomes and fetal/child development than general stress scales.
“This is emphasized by observations of pregnancy anxiety having a higher predictive quality for birth outcomes and fetal/child development than general stress scales (Wadhwa et al., 1993; Huizink et al., 2003; DiPietro et al., 2004; Roesch et al., 2004; Dipietro et al., 2006; Kramer et al., 2009; Davis & Sandman, in press)”
From High pregnancy anxiety during mid-gestation is associated with decreased gray matter density in 6-9-year-old children. (2010) · cites this paper as Huizink et al., 2003
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“…such as relationship difficulties (Bergman et al., 2007), emotional or physical partner abuse (Campbell, 2002), and even daily challenges (Huizink et al., 2003), are associated with poorer outcomes for children, suggesting that interventions targeting both clinical and universal pregnant…”
- Authors
- Huizink, A. C., Robles de Medina, P. G., Mulder, E. J. H., Visser, G. H. A., & Buitelaar, J. K.
- Affiliations
- University Medical Center Utrecht (NL)
- Venue
- Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry
- Publisher
- Wiley
- Published
- 2003-09
- Volume
- 44
- Issue
- 6
- Pages
- 810-818
- ISSN
- 0021-9630 (ISSN-L)
- 1469-7610
- OpenAlex
- W2047907599
- Cited by
- 651
- References
- 35
- Citations by year
- 2026: 12 · 2025: 19 · 2024: 21 · 2023: 15 · 2022: 27 · 2021: 32 · 2020: 33 · 2019: 42 · 2018: 37 · 2017: 41 · 2016: 41 · 2015: 48 · 2014: 46 · 2013: 24 · 2012: 45
- FWCI
- 12.87
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Radboud Repository (Radboud University) (submittedVersion)
- VU Research Portal (submittedVersion)
- Data Archiving and Networked Services (DANS) (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Maternal Mental Health During Pregnancy and Postpartum
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Behavioral Neuroscience › Stress Responses and Cortisol
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Pediatrics, Perinatology and Child Health › Infant Development and Preterm Care
- Keywords
- prenatal stress, maternal anxiety, daily hassles, salivary cortisol, infant development, cognitive development, motor development, developmental delay, pregnancy, nulliparous women
- MeSH terms
- Developmental Disabilities, Cognition, Fear, Female, Humans, Hydrocortisone, Infant, Maternal-Fetal Exchange, Pregnancy, Pregnancy Complications, Prenatal Exposure Delayed Effects, Risk Factors, Stress, Physiological, Infant Behavior
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