Child maltreatment and the developing HPA axis
Abstract
The developing HPA axis is under strong social regulation in infancy and early childhood and is vulnerable to perturbation in the absence of sensitive, responsive caregiving. Child maltreatment has complex, long-term influences both on basal cortisol levels and on HPA responsivity to pharmacological and psychological stressors, depending on current psychiatric status, current life adversity, age, and most likely, genetic factors. Among the more consistent findings, maltreated children with internalizing problems have elevated basal cortisol most often detected in early AM concentrations, whereas adults maltreated as children often exhibit low basal cortisol levels and elevated ACTH response to psychological stressors. To disentangle these complicated interactions, future research must take the above qualifiers into account, study the transition to puberty, explore the moderating role of candidate genes, and utilize animal models and pharmacological challenges, when ethical, to localize changes in the HPA axis. Post-institutionalized children may provide a model to separate early adverse care histories from current adversity.
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Severe caregiving disruption leads to under- rather than over-activation of stress response systems, as shown by altered diurnal cortisol in children with early caregiving adversity.
“It is important to note that severe disruption of caregiving has been shown to result in under rather than over activation of stress response systems, as seen in altered diurnal variation in cortisol in children experiencing early caregiving adversity (Tarullo & Gunnar, 2006).”
From Salivary cortisol mediates effects of poverty and parenting on executive functions in early childhood (2011) · cites this paper as Tarullo & Gunnar, 2006
Animal evidence indicates that adverse or maltreating care early in life has long-lasting effects.
“Indeed the empirical evidence gleaned from rodent and nonhuman primate investigation indicates that adverse or maltreating (i.e., neglectful and abusive) care early in an animal’s life has long-lasting effects.”
From The Differential Impacts of Early Physical and Sexual Abuse and Internalizing Problems on Daytime Cortisol Rhythm in School-Aged Children (2010) · cites this paper as Tarullo & Gunnar, 2006
For abused infants, toddlers, or preschoolers, hypervigilance and chronic stress about unpredictable parental attacks may shift neurobiological development toward depression and neuroendocrine dysregulation.
“For the abused infant, toddler, or preschooler, a hypervigilant state of mind and chronic stress with respect to unpredictable parental attacks may shift neurobiological development onto pathways leading to depression and neuroendocrine dysregulation (Cicchetti & Rogosch, 2001a; Tarullo & Gunnar, 2006).”
From The Differential Impacts of Early Physical and Sexual Abuse and Internalizing Problems on Daytime Cortisol Rhythm in School-Aged Children (2010) · cites this paper as Tarullo & Gunnar, 2006
The blunted cortisol response is related to exposure to maltreatment and not the presence of internalizing symptoms.
“Our results suggest that the blunted cortisol response is related to the exposure to maltreatment and not the presence of internalizing symptoms, an important finding in view of the evidence for the association between internalizing problems and increased basal cortisol levels among maltreated children (15,40).”
From Cortisol response to stress in female youths exposed to childhood maltreatment: results of the youth mood project (2009) · cites this paper as [15]
Evidence exists for an association between internalizing problems and increased basal cortisol levels among maltreated children.
“an important finding in view of the evidence for the association between internalizing problems and increased basal cortisol levels among maltreated children (15,40).”
From Cortisol response to stress in female youths exposed to childhood maltreatment: results of the youth mood project (2009) · cites this paper as [15]
Most studies of HPA activity involving children exposed to maltreatment examined basal levels rather than stress reactivity.
“Tarullo and Gunnar (15) found that most studies of HPA activity involving children exposed to maltreatment examined basal levels rather than stress reactivity (for a review, see reference 15).”
From Cortisol response to stress in female youths exposed to childhood maltreatment: results of the youth mood project (2009) · cites this paper as [15]
Most investigations of maltreated children have examined basal cortisol, while studies involving adult participants have focused on stress reactivity.
“These authors also comment that most investigations of maltreated children have examined basal cortisol, while studies involving adult participants have focused on stress reactivity.”
From Cortisol response to stress in female youths exposed to childhood maltreatment: results of the youth mood project (2009) · cites this paper as [15]
Normally developing children manifest an increase in basal cortisol levels from childhood to adolescence related to pubertal status.
“Tarullo and Gunnar (15) point to the fact that normally developing children manifest an increase in basal cortisol levels from childhood to adolescence related to pubertal status.”
From Cortisol response to stress in female youths exposed to childhood maltreatment: results of the youth mood project (2009) · cites this paper as [15]
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- Authors
- Tarullo, A. R., & Gunnar, M. R.
- Affiliations
- University of Minnesota (US)
- Corresponding author
- Gunnar, Megan R.
- Venue
- Hormones and Behavior
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2006-11
- Volume
- 50
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 632-639
- ISSN
- 0018-506X (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2106097361
- Cited by
- 737
- References
- 14
- Citations by year
- 2026: 18 · 2025: 25 · 2024: 28 · 2023: 21 · 2022: 29 · 2021: 43 · 2020: 65 · 2019: 38 · 2018: 45 · 2017: 55 · 2016: 49 · 2015: 51 · 2014: 39 · 2013: 47 · 2012: 29
- FWCI
- 23.96
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Hormones and Behavior (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- National Science Foundation
- National Institutes of Health
- National Institute of Mental Health (K05MH066208, K-05 MH66208)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child Abuse and Trauma
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Behavioral Neuroscience › Stress Responses and Cortisol
- Social Sciences › Safety Research › Child Welfare and Adoption
- Keywords
- child abuse, hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis, cortisol, basal cortisol, sensitive caregiving, internalizing problems, childhood adversity, puberty, candidate genes, animal models
- MeSH terms
- Animals, Child Abuse, Humans, Hydrocortisone, Hypothalamo-Hypophyseal System, Infant, Pituitary-Adrenal System, Models, Animal
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