The blood-brain barrier
Open accessAbstract
Blood vessels are critical to deliver oxygen and nutrients to all of the tissues and organs throughout the body. The blood vessels that vascularize the central nervous system (CNS) possess unique properties, termed the blood-brain barrier, which allow these vessels to tightly regulate the movement of ions, molecules, and cells between the blood and the brain. This precise control of CNS homeostasis allows for proper neuronal function and also protects the neural tissue from toxins and pathogens, and alterations of these barrier properties are an important component of pathology and progression of different neurological diseases. The physiological barrier is coordinated by a series of physical, transport, and metabolic properties possessed by the endothelial cells (ECs) that form the walls of the blood vessels, and these properties are regulated by interactions with different vascular, immune, and neural cells. Understanding how these different cell populations interact to regulate the barrier properties is essential for understanding how the brain functions during health and disease.
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CNS vessels at the levels of arteriole-capillary-venules are non-fenestrated and continuous and control the exchange of molecules, ions and cells between the blood and the brain.
“CNS vessels, at the levels of arteriole–capillary–venules, are non-fenestrated and continuous; they are able to control the exchange of molecules, ions and cells between the blood and the brain [1].”
From Nanoemulsions for “Nose-to-Brain” Drug Delivery (2019) · cites this paper as [1]
The Blood-Brain Barrier section states that CNS vessels are continuous and nonfenestrated and tightly regulate movement of molecules, ions, and cells between blood and the CNS. It defines the relevant microvasculature as capillaries and postcapillary venules, however, rather than explicitly extending those barrier properties to arterioles. The Endothelial Cells section also identifies fenestrated CNS capillaries in circumventricular organs, so the statement is too broad if read as applying to every CNS vessel. (LLM, conf=0.83)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredCarrier-mediated transport enables carbohydrates, amino acids, monocarboxylic acids, hormones, fatty acids, nucleotides, inorganic ions, amines, choline, and vitamins to cross the blood-brain barrier via substrate-specific transporters.
“Carrier-mediated transport (CMT) enables solutes such as carbohydrates, amino acids (AA), monocarboxylic acids, hormones, fatty acids, nucleotides, inorganic ions, amines, choline, and vitamins to cross the BBB via substrate-specific transporters (2, 128, 460, 682, 692, 693).”
From Blood-Brain Barrier: From Physiology to Disease and Back (2019) · cites this paper as [128]
The transporters passage (section labeled “Tight Junctions”; page unavailable) describes substrate-specific solute carriers for glucose, lactate and pyruvate, and amino acids, supporting the claim for carbohydrates, monocarboxylic acids, and amino acids. The copy does not establish carrier-mediated BBB crossing for the full additional list, including hormones, fatty acids, nucleotides, choline, and vitamins; its discussion of ion transport does not establish that entire claim either. (LLM, conf=0.88)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredSodium-dependent multivitamin transporter (SMVT) transports multivitamins from blood to brain.
“and sodium-dependent multivitamin transporter (SMVT) transports multivitamins from blood-to-brain (2, 128, 460, 682).”
From Blood-Brain Barrier: From Physiology to Disease and Back (2019) · cites this paper as [128]
The Endothelial Cells and Tight Junctions sections state that nutrient transporters deliver specific nutrients from blood into the CNS. They do not identify sodium-dependent multivitamin transporter (SMVT) or say that it transports multivitamins, so the transporter-specific claim is unsupported by this copy. (LLM, conf=0.78)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredCollagen IV and laminin localization matches in vivo organization where pericytes are embedded within the basement membrane.
“matches in vivo organization where pericytes are embedded within the basement membrane [1].”
From Role of iPSC-derived pericytes on barrier function of iPSC-derived brain microvascular endothelial cells in 2D and 3D (2019) · cites this paper as [1]
The blood-brain barrier is an active interface that controls the CNS microenvironment, communicates with CNS cells, responds to pathological conditions and can become a cause of disease progression.
“BBB is not only a cellular self-defense barrier but also an active interface that strictly controls the CNS microenvironment, allowing its normal neuronal functions. BBB cells are able to communicate with CNS cells and they adapt their behavior to the needs of the CNS, responding to pathological conditions and sometimes becoming a cause of the progression of the disease [1].”
From Nanoemulsions for “Nose-to-Brain” Drug Delivery (2019) · cites this paper as [1]
The microvasculature of the central nervous system is defined as the blood-brain barrier because it isolates the brain from the rest of the body.
“The microvasculature of the central nervous system (CNS) is defined as a blood–brain barrier (BBB) because it isolates the brain from the remaining part of the body.”
From Nanoemulsions for “Nose-to-Brain” Drug Delivery (2019) · cites this paper as [1]
The blood-brain barrier protects the brain from toxic substances and controls and restricts the entry of therapeutic agents.
“The blood–brain barrier (BBB) plays a fundamental role in protecting the brain from toxic substances and therefore also controls and restricts the entry of therapeutic agents.”
From Nanoemulsions for “Nose-to-Brain” Drug Delivery (2019) · cites this paper as [1]
The barrier structure of the BBB depends on specific properties of brain endothelial cells, which are polarized, held together by tight junctions that limit paracellular flux of solutes and restrict vesicle-mediated transcellular transport.
“The barrier structure of BBB depends on the specific properties of the brain endothelial cells (BECs) that constitute the walls of the blood vessels. BECs are different from endothelial cells of non-neural tissues—they are polarized cells, held together by tight junctions that strongly limit the paracellular flux of solutes (molecules and ions) and restrict vesicle-mediated transcellular transport”
From Nanoemulsions for “Nose-to-Brain” Drug Delivery (2019) · cites this paper as [1]
The blood-brain barrier protects the CNS from pathogens, toxins and external agents.
“This strong barrier capacity allows the BBB to protect the CNS from pathogens, toxins and external agents.”
From Nanoemulsions for “Nose-to-Brain” Drug Delivery (2019) · cites this paper as [1]
Brain endothelial cells express efflux and influx transporters, and P-glycoprotein activity has been associated with CNS diseases such as drug-resistant tumors and epilepsy.
“Among efflux transporters, P-glycoprotein plays an important role, as its activity has been associated with diseases of the CNS such as drug-resistant tumors and epilepsy [1].”
From Nanoemulsions for “Nose-to-Brain” Drug Delivery (2019) · cites this paper as [1]
Brain endothelial transport systems regulate molecular exchanges between blood and brain and between brain and blood.
“brain endothelial transport systems regulate molecular exchanges between blood-and-brain and brain-and-blood (2, 128, 460, 682, 692, 693).”
From Blood-Brain Barrier: From Physiology to Disease and Back (2019) · cites this paper as [128]
The GLUT1 uniporter transports glucose down the concentration gradient.
“The GLUT1 uniporter transports glucose, the key energy metabolite for the CNS, down the concentration gradient (128, 460).”
From Blood-Brain Barrier: From Physiology to Disease and Back (2019) · cites this paper as [128]
Plasma membrane monoamine transporter (PMAT) transports organic cations from brain to blood.
“Specifically, plasma membrane monoamine transporter (PMAT) transports organic cations from brain-to-blood, choline transporter like protein type 1 (CTL1) transports choline bidirectionally across the BBB, and sodium-dependent multivitamin transporter (SMVT) transports multivitamins from blood-to-brain (2, 128, 460, 682).”
From Blood-Brain Barrier: From Physiology to Disease and Back (2019) · cites this paper as [128]
The Endothelial Cells and Tight Junctions passages describe transport toward the blood in general, but do not identify PMAT or say that it transports organic cations. Searches for PMAT, plasma membrane monoamine transporter, and organic cations found no passage addressing that specific claim; page numbers were not available in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.76)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredCholine transporter like protein type 1 (CTL1) transports choline bidirectionally across the blood-brain barrier.
“choline transporter like protein type 1 (CTL1) transports choline bidirectionally across the BBB, and sodium-dependent multivitamin transporter (SMVT) transports multivitamins from blood-to-brain (2, 128, 460, 682).”
From Blood-Brain Barrier: From Physiology to Disease and Back (2019) · cites this paper as [128]
The transporter discussion (Tight Junctions; page unavailable) describes nutrient transport across the BBB but does not identify CTL1, choline, or bidirectional choline transport. Searches for CTL1 and choline found no passage addressing the claim. (LLM, conf=0.75)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredSepsis triggers a systemic inflammatory response releasing endotoxins such as LPS and proinflammatory cytokines such as IL-6, IL-1β, NO, and ROS, leading to cellular dysfunction and BBB integrity impairment, and neuronal degeneration and brain edema exacerbate neuroinflammation.
“Sepsis triggers a systemic inflammatory response, releasing endotoxins such as lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and proinflammatory cytokines such as IL-6, IL-1 β, NO, and ROS. This response leads to cellular dysfunction and BBB integrity impairment, and neuronal degeneration and brain edema exacerbate neuroinflammation (Daneman & Prat, 2015; Michinaga & Koyama, 2015).”
From The modulatory effects of gut microbes and metabolites on blood-brain barrier integrity and brain function in sepsis-associated encephalopathy (2023) · cites this paper as Daneman & Prat, 2015
Bacterial products and metabolites can pass the blood-brain barrier and shape CNS development and functions and the genesis of certain diseases.
“Among the molecules that can pass the BBB are also bacterial products and metabolites shaping not only the CNS development and functions (6, 15) but also the genesis of certain diseases (33–42).”
From The gut-brain axis: how microbiota and host inflammasome influence brain physiology and pathology (2020) · cites this paper as [34]
Early experiments using germ-free or specific pathogen-free mice treated with antibiotics to reduce microbial diversity showed that several neurological problems occur in mice with reduced or lack of proper mature gut microbiota.
“Early experiments using germ-free (GF) or specific pathogen-free (SPF) mice treated with antibiotics, to reduce the microbial diversity within the intestine, showed that several neurological problems occur in mice with reduced or lack of proper mature gut microbiota (7, 10, 14, 15, 34, 80, 81).”
From The gut-brain axis: how microbiota and host inflammasome influence brain physiology and pathology (2020) · cites this paper as [34]
Endothelial cells comprise the BBB and are highly selective in filtering the content that is available to neurons.
“Endothelial cells comprise the BBB and are highly selective in consequently filtering the content that is available to neurons [121].”
From Hyperactivation of P2X7 receptors as a culprit of COVID-19 neuropathology (2021) · cites this paper as [121]
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Blood-Brain Barrier: From Physiology to Disease and Back
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“The basement membrane is composed of both an inner vascular basement membrane, which is secreted by endothelial cells and pericytes and an outer parenchymal basement membrane, which is secreted by astrocytes [1].”
BackgroundThe blood-brain barrier: an engineering perspective
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“Indeed, while age-related BBB dysfunction has been probed with a diverse toolkit of tracers (Bien-Ly et al., 2015; Marques et al., 2013; Montagne et al., 2015; Mooradian, 1988), the transcriptional response of vessel segment-specific BECs to aging and changes in the systemic environment have not yet been explored in-d…”
InfluentialInfectious immunity in the central nervous system and brain function
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Development and Function of the Blood-Brain Barrier in the Context of Metabolic Control
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Glycosphingolipids and Neuroinflammation in Parkinson’s Disease
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Neurotheranostics as Personalized Medicines
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Blood-brain barrier leakage in Alzheimer’s disease: From discovery to clinical relevance
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Microglial diversity by responses and responders
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“To overcome the highly selective BBB most molecules require carrier- or receptor-mediated transport systems [12].”
BackgroundMechanisms of myeloid cell entry to the healthy and diseased central nervous system
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Microglia and Sensitive Periods in Brain Development
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“The BBB is formed of specific endothelial cells lining the inside of brain microvasculature vessels [3], while the BCSFB is established by the epithelial layer of the choroid plexus of each ventricle [4].”
BackgroundCai, M., Chen, S., Du, Y., Li, S., Dong, P., Wang, L., Yang, R., Hu, J., & Zhu, L. (2022) · Journal of Molecular Neuroscience · doi:10.1007/s12031-022-02052-4 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
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- Authors
- Daneman, R., & Prat, A.
- Affiliations
- University of California San Diego (US)
- Université de Montréal (CA)
- Venue
- Cold Spring Harbor Perspectives in Biology
- Publisher
- Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory
- Published
- 2015-01
- Volume
- 7
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- a020412
- ISSN
- 1943-0264 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC4292164
- OpenAlex
- W2125411036
- Cited by
- 3,437
- References
- 161
- Citations by year
- 2026: 331 · 2025: 405 · 2024: 455 · 2023: 463 · 2022: 482 · 2021: 433 · 2020: 310 · 2019: 285 · 2018: 107 · 2017: 49 · 2016: 30 · 2015: 30 · 2014: 26 · 2013: 24 · 2012: 3
- Type
- posted content
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Cold Spring Harbor Perspectives in Biology (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Neurology › Barrier Structure and Function Studies
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Oncology › Drug Transport and Resistance Mechanisms
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Molecular Biology › Extracellular vesicles in disease
- Keywords
- blood-brain barrier, endothelial cells, CNS homeostasis, barrier permeability, blood-brain barrier dysfunction, neurological disorders, neuroimmune interactions
- MeSH terms
- Astrocytes, Basement Membrane, Blood-Brain Barrier, Central Nervous System Diseases, Homeostasis, Humans, Muscle, Smooth, Vascular, Tight Junctions, Endothelial Cells
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