Worry and generalized anxiety disorder: A review and theoretical synthesis of evidence on nature, etiology, mechanisms, and treatment

Newman, Michelle G.; Llera, Sandra J.; Erickson, Thane M.; Przeworski, Amy; Castonguay, Louis G.

doi:10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-050212-185544

Cited by 472Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive ProcessesObsessive-Compulsive Spectrum DisordersChild and Adolescent Psychosocial and Emotional Development

Worry and generalized anxiety disorder: A review and theoretical synthesis of evidence on nature, etiology, mechanisms, and treatment

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Newman, Michelle G., Llera, Sandra J., Erickson, Thane M., Przeworski, Amy, Castonguay, Louis G.·2013·Annual Review of Clinical Psychology

DOI 10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-050212-185544PMC PMC4964851

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Abstract

Generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) is associated with substantial personal and societal cost yet is the least successfully treated of the anxiety disorders. In this review, research on clinical features, boundary issues, and naturalistic course, as well as risk factors and maintaining mechanisms (cognitive, biological, neural, interpersonal, and developmental), are presented. A synthesis of these data points to a central role of emotional hyperreactivity, sensitivity to contrasting emotions, and dysfunctional attempts to cope with strong emotional shifts via worry. Consistent with the Contrast Avoidance model, evidence shows that worry evokes and sustains negative affect, thereby precluding sharp increases in negative emotion. We also review current treatment paradigms and suggest how the Contrast Avoidance model may help to target key fears and avoidance tendencies that serve to maintain pathology in GAD.

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Larger studies show that GAD's functional impairment is equal to or greater than that of other diagnoses.
“Although small studies have suggested that pure GAD is associated with less severe disability than other diagnoses, larger studies have demonstrated that the functional impairment associated with GAD is equivalent and sometimes greater than that of other diagnoses (see Newman et al., 2013 for a review).”
From The increase in interest in GAD: Commentary on Asmundson & Asmundson (2018) · cites this paper as Newman et al., 2013
The “Health, Disability, and Cost” section (page unavailable) reports that pure GAD was associated with disability comparable to major depressive disorder and greater than several other diagnoses. It does not establish the citing sentence’s contrast between smaller and larger studies or identify study size as the reason for the differing findings. (LLM, conf=0.84)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
GAD's worry and anxiety are theorized to resemble trait anxiety, as both are persistent, high, diffuse states that can impair functioning and may be a common transdiagnostic experience in anxious people.
“and to be similar in nature to trait anxiety, in that both are persistent, high, and diffuse anxiety states that can impair an individual’s functioning and that may serve as a common transdiagnostic experience in anxious individuals (Newman et al., 2013).”
From The increase in interest in GAD: Commentary on Asmundson & Asmundson (2018) · cites this paper as Newman et al., 2013
In “Defining and Delineating the Boundaries of Generalized Anxiety Disorder” (page unavailable), the review describes worry as a possible transdiagnostic process. Its “Health, Disability, and Cost” section reports substantial impairment, and the Conclusion describes GAD’s long course. However, the copy does not compare GAD’s worry and anxiety with trait anxiety or describe both as high, diffuse states. (LLM, conf=0.87)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
The worry and anxiety typical of GAD have been theorized to underlie all emotional diagnoses.
“The worry and anxiety that characterizes GAD has been conceptualized to underlie all emotional diagnoses (Newman et al., 2013)”
From The increase in interest in GAD: Commentary on Asmundson & Asmundson (2018) · cites this paper as Newman et al., 2013
GAD tends to persist and is not likely to resolve without intervention.
“GAD is chronic and unlikely to spontaneously remit (Newman, Llera, Erickson, Przeworski, & Castonguay, 2013).”
From The increase in interest in GAD: Commentary on Asmundson & Asmundson (2018) · cites this paper as Newman et al., 2013
GAD is linked to higher rates of health problems.
“as well as increased rates of health problems (Newman et al., 2013).”
From The increase in interest in GAD: Commentary on Asmundson & Asmundson (2018) · cites this paper as Newman et al., 2013

An exemplary moderated mediation analysis using randomized controlled trial data showed that acting with awareness mediated the effect of mindfulness ecological momentary intervention versus waitlist on distress among non-depressed school employees.
“Relatedly, an exemplary moderated mediation analysis using RCT data showed that acting with awareness mediated the effect of MEMI versus waitlist on distress among non-depressed school employees [39]; despite that, this study only examined one trait mindfulness domain as a mediator.”
From Treatment condition as a moderator and change in trait mindfulness as a mediator of a brief mindfulness ecological momentary intervention for generalized anxiety disorder (2024) · cites this paper as [39]
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Verbalizing a fearful situation can induce less cardiovascular response than visually imagining it, possibly because verbalization serves abstraction and disengagement.
“For example, verbalizing a fearful situation can induce less cardiovascular response than visually imagining the same situation, possibly because verbalizations are used as a strategy for abstraction and disengagement (Borkovec et al., 1998; but also see Newman & Llera, 2011, and Newman, Llera, Erickson, Przeworski, & Castonguay, 2013, who did not find support for this).”
From Toward a Cognitive-Behavioral Classification System for Mental Disorders (2014) · cites this paper as Newman, Llera, Erickson, Przeworski, & Castonguay, 2013
Anthroposophic AT is a treatment tailored to the individual, which could partially explain the positive results: patients with severe symptoms, comorbidities and a chronic course appear to be better treatable with a therapy adapted to the individual.
“Anthroposophic AT is a treatment that is tailored to the individual, with could partially explain the positive results: patients with severe symptoms, comorbidities and a chronic course appear to be better treatable with a therapy that is adapted to the individual, in terms of intensity and focus (Newman et al., 2013).”
From The Effectiveness of Art Therapy for Anxiety in Adult Women: A Randomized Controlled Trial (2019) · cites this paper as Newman et al., 2013
All these simultaneously result in more co-occurring negative emotions and physical arousal symptoms.
“All these simultaneously result in more co-occurring negative emotions and physical arousal symptoms [ 66 ].”
From Anxiety and Depression Symptoms among Youth Survivors of Childhood Sexual Abuse: A Network Analysis (2023) · cites this paper as [66]

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Emotional Reactivity and Regulation in Anxious and Non-anxious Youth: A Cell-Phone Ecological Momentary Assessment Study
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Predictors and pathways from infancy to symptoms of anxiety and depression in early adolescence.
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Broadening the definition of generalized anxiety disorder: Effects on prevalence and associations with other disorders in the National Comorbidity Survey Replication
Ruscio, A. M., Chiu, W. T., Roy-Byrne, P., Stang, P. E., Stein, D. J., Wittchen, H.-U., & Kessler, R. C. (2007) · Journal of Anxiety Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.janxdis.2006.10.004 · Cited by 145 · see citing works
Subordination and Defeat
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Prolonged cardiac effects of momentary assessed stressful events and worry episodes
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Interpersonal pathoplasticity in individuals with generalized anxiety disorder
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Generalized Anxiety Disorder: Connections With Self-Reported Attachment
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A Population-Based Twin Study of the Relationship Between Neuroticism and Internalizing Disorders
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Relations among perceived parental rearing behaviors, attachment style, and worry in anxious children
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Emotion Regulation Therapy: An Integrative Approach to Treatment-Resistant Anxiety Disorders
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SELF-REPORTED ATTACHMENT STYLE, ANXIETY, AND DEPRESSION IN CHILDREN
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Interpersonal Problems and the Outcome of Interpersonally Oriented Psychodynamic Treatment of GAD.
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An open trial of integrative therapy for generalized anxiety disorder.
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Diagnostic Comorbidity in Adults With Generalized Anxiety Disorder: Impact of Comorbidity on Psychotherapy Outcome and Impact of Psychotherapy on Comorbid Diagnoses
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The impact of motivational interviewing on resistance in cognitive behavioural therapy for generalized anxiety disorder
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Adolescent’s perceptions of parenting behaviours and its relationship to adolescent Generalized Anxiety Disorder symptoms
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On predicting improvement and relapse in generalized anxiety disorder following psychotherapy
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The generalized anxiety spectrum: prevalence, onset, course and outcome
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The importance of worry across diagnostic presentations: Prevalence, severity and associated symptoms in a partial hospital setting
Kertz, S. J., Bigda-Peyton, J. S., Rosmarin, D. H., & Björgvinsson, T. (2012) · Journal of Anxiety Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.janxdis.2011.10.005 · Cited by 100 · see citing works
Anxiety predicted premature all-cause and cardiovascular death in a 10-year follow-up of middle-aged women
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Association between generalized anxiety levels and pain in a community sample: Evidence for diagnostic specificity
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Dyadic predictors of outcome in a cognitive-behavioral program for patients with generalized anxiety disorder in committed relationships: A “spoonful of sugar” and a dose of non-hostile criticism may help
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“Specifically, interpersonal problems (CritsChristoph et al. 2005), partner hostility (Zinbarg et al. 2007), marital tension (Durham et al. 1997), and personality disorders (Ansell et al. 2011) predict lower likelihood of remission in GAD.”
Background
Evaluating the cognitive avoidance model of generalised anxiety disorder: Impact of worry on threat appraisal, perceived control and anxious arousal
Stapinski, L. A., Abbott, M. J., & Rapee, R. M. (2010) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.brat.2010.07.005 · Cited by 95 · see citing works
The association of personality disorders with the prospective 7-year course of anxiety disorders
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Patterns of Personality Pathology in Patients with Generalized Anxiety Disorder, Panic Disorder with and without Agoraphobia, and Social Phobia
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Anxiety in middle adulthood: effects of age and time on the 14-year course of panic disorder, social phobia and generalized anxiety disorder
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The direction of effects between perceived parental behavioral control and psychological control and adolescents’ self-reported GAD and SAD symptoms
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The Role of Anger in Generalized Anxiety Disorder
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Expectancy/Credibility Change as a Mediator of Cognitive Behavioral Therapy for Generalized Anxiety Disorder: Mechanism of Action or Proxy for Symptom Change?
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Characteristics and Predictors of Full and Partial Recovery From Generalized Anxiety Disorder in Primary Care Patients
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Homotypic Versus Heterotypic Continuity of Anxiety Symptoms in Young Adolescents: Evidence for Distinctions Between DSM-IV Subtypes
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“For instance, across two years, GAD significantly predicted both homotypic and heterotypic prospective continuity at roughly equal rates in young adolescents (Ferdinand et al. 2007).”
Background
Combining computerized home-based treatments for generalized anxiety disorder: an attention modification program and cognitive behavioral therapy
Amir, N., & Taylor, C. T. (2012) · Behavior Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.beth.2010.12.008 · Cited by 76 · see citing works
Mental Health Conditions are Associated With Increased Health Care Utilization Among Urban Family Medicine Patients
Fogarty, C. T., Sharma, S., Chetty, V. K., & Culpepper, L. (2008) · The Journal of the American Board of Family Medicine · doi:10.3122/jabfm.2008.05.070082 · Cited by 74 · see citing works
Distinguishing generalized anxiety disorder from major depression: prevalence and impairment from current pure and comorbid disorders in the US and Ontario
Kessler, R. C., Berglund, P. A., Dewit, D. J., Bedirhan Üstün, T., Wang, P. S., & Wïttchen, H. (2002) · International Journal of Methods in Psychiatric Research · doi:10.1002/mpr.128 · Cited by 70 · see citing works
A quantitative method for the analysis of nomothetic relationships between idiographic structures: Dynamic patterns create attractor states for sustained posttreatment change.
Fisher, A. J., Newman, M. G., & Molenaar, P. C. M. (2011) · Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0024069 · Cited by 69 · see citing works
Self-citation
Therapist emotional reactions and client resistance in cognitive behavioral therapy.
Westra, H. A., Aviram, A., Connors, L., Kertes, A., & Ahmed, M. S. (2011) · Psychotherapy · doi:10.1037/a0023200 · Cited by 69 · see citing works
Cognitive-behavioral therapy for late-life generalized anxiety disorder: who gets better?
Wetherell, J. L., Hopko, D. R., Diefenbach, G. J., Averill, P. M., Beck, J. G., Craske, M. G., Gatz, M., Novy, D. M., & Stanley, M. A. (2005) · Behavior Therapy · doi:10.1016/s0005-7894(05)80063-2 · Cited by 67 · see citing works
Combined medication and cognitive therapy for generalized anxiety disorder
Crits-Christoph, P. F., Newman, M. G., Rickels, K., Gallop, R., Gibbons, M. B. C., Hamilton, J. L., Ring‐Kurtz, S., & Pastva, A. M. (2011) · Journal of Anxiety Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.janxdis.2011.07.007 · Cited by 67 · see citing works
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Evaluative judgments of aspects of life as a function of vicarious exposure to hedonic extremes
Dermer, M., Cohen, S. J., Jacobsen, E., & Anderson, E. A. (1979) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.37.2.247 · Cited by 67 · see citing works
Interpersonal and Emotional Processes in Generalized Anxiety Disorder Analogues During Social Interaction Tasks
Erickson, T. M., & Newman, M. G. (2007) · Behavior Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.beth.2006.10.005 · Cited by 65 · see citing works
Self-citation
Comparing the predictive capacity of observed in-session resistance to self-reported motivation in cognitive behavioral therapy
Westra, H. A. (2011) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.brat.2010.11.007 · Cited by 62 · cited 3× · see citing works
“…emotional deepening or regulation (Mennin 2006; Newman et al. 2008, 2011), interpersonal problems (Newman et al. 2008, 2011), mindfulness (Roemer et al. 2008), intolerance of uncertainty (Dugas et al. 2005), attentional bias (Amir & Taylor 2012), and motivational interviewing (Westra 2011).”
Background
Differential patterns of physical symptoms and subjective processes in generalized anxiety disorder and unipolar depression
Aldao, A., Mennin, D. S., Linardatos, E., & Fresco, D. M. (2010) · Journal of Anxiety Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.janxdis.2009.12.001 · Cited by 61 · see citing works
Trait and state perseverative cognition and the cortisol awakening response
Zoccola, P. M., Dickerson, S. S., & Yim, I. S. (2010) · Psychoneuroendocrinology · doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2010.10.004 · Cited by 52 · see citing works
Therapist–Patient Alliance, Patient–Therapist Alliance, Mutual Therapeutic Alliance, Therapist–Patient Concordance, and Outcome of CBT in GAD
Langhoff, C., Baer, T., Zubrägel, D., & Linden, M. (2008) · Journal of Cognitive Psychotherapy · doi:10.1891/0889.8391.22.1.68 · Cited by 50 · see citing works
Vagal influence during worry and cognitive challenge
Hammel, J. C., Smitherman, T. A., McGlynn, F. D., Mulfinger, A. M. M., Lazarte, A. A., & Gothard, K. D. (2010) · Anxiety Stress & Coping · doi:10.1080/10615806.2010.490912 · Cited by 46 · see citing works
Mediated moderation in combined cognitive behavioral therapy versus component treatments for generalized anxiety disorder.
Newman, M. G., & Fisher, A. J. (2013) · Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0031690 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
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Generalized anxiety disorder: A comparison of symptom change in adults receiving cognitive-behavioral therapy or applied relaxation.
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The differential functions of imagery and verbal thought in insomnia.
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Making something out of nothing: neutral content modulates attention in generalized anxiety disorder
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Generalized anxiety disorder.
Newman, M. G., & Erickson, T. M. (2010) · American Psychological Association eBooks · doi:10.1037/12084-009 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
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Delimitation of generalized anxiety disorder: Clinical comparisons with panic and major depressive disorders
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A 12-month comparison of brief psychodynamic psychotherapy and pharmacotherapy treatment in subjects with generalised anxiety disorders in a community setting
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A Study of Affective Contrast
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Autonomic arousal and differential diagnosis in clinical psychology and psychopathology
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Cognitive behaviour therapy : a guide for the practising clinician
Simos, G. (2002) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 29 · see citing works
Using Structural Analysis of Social Behavior (SASB) Measures of Self- and Social Perception to Give Interpersonal Meaning to Symptoms
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Towards DSM-V: the relationship between generalized anxiety disorder and major depressive episode
Goldberg, D. P. (2008) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s003329170800295x · Cited by 25 · see citing works
Predicting outcome after treatment for generalised anxiety disorder.
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Treatment of generalised anxiety disorder with a short course of psychological therapy, combined with buspirone or placebo
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Association Between Abnormal Psychosocial Situations in Childhood, Generalized Anxiety Disorder and Oppositional Defiant Disorder
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Diagnostic Issues in Depression and Generalized Anxiety Disorder: Refining the Research Agenda for DSM-V
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Neurobiology and Genetics of Generalized Anxiety Disorder
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Cognitive behavioural therapy for worry and generalised anxiety disorder
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Pharmacotherapy for Generalized Anxiety Disorder
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An Experimental Examination of Emotional Avoidance in Generalized Anxiety Disorder: Data Supporting a New Theory of Emotional Contrast Avoidance
Llera, S. J., & Newman, M. G. (2011) · PsycEXTRA Dataset · doi:10.1037/e701132011-001 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
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Worry and Generalized Anxiety Disorder: A Review and Theoretical Synthesis of Research on Nature, Etiology, and TreatmentPreprint
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Generalized Anxiety Disorder
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A novel theory of experiential avoidance in generalized anxiety disorder: A review and synthesis of research supporting a contrast avoidance model of worry
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Basic science and clinical application of the contrast avoidance model in generalized anxiety disorder
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Rethinking the Role of Worry in Generalized Anxiety Disorder: Evidence Supporting a Model of Emotional Contrast Avoidance
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Authors: Newman, M. G., Llera, S. J., Erickson, T. M., Przeworski, A., & Castonguay, L. G.
Affiliations: Pennsylvania State University (US)
Towson University (US)
Seattle Pacific University (US)
Case Western Reserve University (US)
ORCID: Newman, Michelle G.
Llera, Sandra J.
Erickson, Thane M.
Przeworski, Amy
Castonguay, Louis G.
Venue: Annual Review of Clinical Psychology
Publisher: Annual Reviews
Published: 2013-03-28
Volume: 9
Issue: 1
Pages: 275-297
ISSN: 1548-5943 (ISSN-L)
1548-5951
DOI: 10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-050212-185544
PMC: PMC4964851
OpenAlex: W2166975679
Cited by: 472
References: 140
Citations by year: 2026: 36 · 2025: 43 · 2024: 56 · 2023: 42 · 2022: 57 · 2021: 45 · 2020: 37 · 2019: 32 · 2018: 29 · 2017: 39 · 2016: 20 · 2015: 17 · 2014: 15 · 2013: 3
FWCI: 3.05
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: green
www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
Locations: Annual Review of Clinical Psychology (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (acceptedVersion)
PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
ScholarSphere (Penn State Libraries) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
Funders: National Institute of Mental Health (R01MH039172)
Topics: Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive Processes
Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Obsessive-Compulsive Spectrum Disorders
Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child and Adolescent Psychosocial and Emotional Development
Keywords: generalized anxiety disorder, worry, contrast sensitivity, negative affect, risk factors, anxiety treatment, avoidance, emotion regulation
MeSH terms: Anxiety Disorders, Emotions, Humans, Models, Psychological, Evidence-Based Medicine

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Worry and generalized anxiety disorder: A review and theoretical synthesis of evidence on nature, etiology, mechanisms, and treatment

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