Circadian rhythm of heat production, heart rate, and skin and core temperature under unmasking conditions in men
Abstract
Seven healthy men were studied in a 34-h constant routine protocol to investigate whether the daily rhythm of heat production and heat loss has an endogenous circadian component. Under these unmasking conditions (constant bed rest, no sleep allowed, regular food and fluid intake), a significant circadian rhythm could be demonstrated for heat production, heart rate, and skin temperatures but not for the respiratory quotient. Heat production and heart rate were phase locked with a maximum at 1100-1200 h. Proximal skin temperatures (infraclavicular region, thigh, and forehead) followed the same circadian rhythm as rectal temperature, whereas distal skin temperatures (hands and feet) were opposite in phase. These physiological circadian rhythm parameters, as well as biochemical parameters (urinary sodium, potassium, urea, and urine flow), were phase advanced by 25-180 min with respect to the circadian rhythm in rectal temperature. Our findings under unmasking conditions show that the circadian variation in rectal temperature is a consequence of endogenous circadian rhythms in both heat production and heat loss.
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The daily rhythm in core body and skin temperatures is due to circadian variation in heat production and heat loss, in particular the nocturnal increase in heat loss from the extremities leading to increased distal skin temperatures.
“The daily rhythm in core body and skin temperatures is due to the circadian variation in heat production and heat loss and, in particular, the nocturnal increase in heat loss from the extremities, which leads to an increase in distal skin temperatures [1,4,50].”
From Human thermal perception and time of day: A review (2021) · cites this paper as [50]
Both heat production and heat loss contribute to the circadian variation in heat content, leading to a circadian rhythm in core body temperature.
“Both heat production and heat loss contribute to the circadian variation in heat content, leading to a circadian rhythm in core body temperature [22].”
From Temperature regulation in women: Effects of the menstrual cycle (2020) · cites this paper as [22]
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JET LAG IN ATHLETES AFTER EASTWARD AND WESTWARD TIME-ZONE TRANSITION
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“Data from several groups indicate that the rhythm in HR must have an endogenous component,([18,19]) whereas the rhythm in BP is regarded not to be driven by a clock mechanism.”
BackgroundResultThe influence of light on thermal responses
te Kulve, M., Schellen, L., Schlangen, L. J. M., & van Marken Lichtenbelt, W. D. (2016) · Acta Physiologica · doi:10.1111/apha.12552 · Cited by 105 · see citing works
“…(1994) in men under unmasking conditions (constant bed rest, no sleep, regular food and fluid, lighting intensity of <50 lux and temperature of 22 °C) (Krauchi & Wirz-Justice 1994); (c and d) distal and proximal skin temperature and CBT data obtained by Krauchi et al. (2000), 7.5-h constant…”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialSleep and cardiovascular regulation
Trinder, J. C., Waloszek, J. M., Woods, M. J., & Jordan, A. S. (2011) · Pflügers Archiv - European Journal of Physiology · doi:10.1007/s00424-011-1041-3 · Cited by 104 · see citing works
Circadian temperature variation and ageing
Weinert, D. (2009) · Ageing Research Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.arr.2009.07.003 · Cited by 103 · see citing works
Gilbert, S. S., van den Heuvel, C. J., & Dawson, D. E. (1999) · The Journal of Physiology · doi:10.1111/j.1469-7793.1999.905ad.x · Cited by 104 · see citing works
Automating sleep stage classification using wireless, wearable sensors
Boe, A. J., McGee Koch, L. L., O’Brien, M. K., Shawen, N., Rogers, J. A., Lieber, R. L., Reid, K. J., Zee, P. C., & Jayaraman, A. (2019) · npj Digital Medicine · doi:10.1038/s41746-019-0210-1 · Cited by 98 · see citing works
Temporal relationships of 21 physiological variables in horse and sheep
Piccione, G. G., CAOLA, G., & Refinetti, R. (2005) · Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part A Molecular & Integrative Physiology · doi:10.1016/j.cbpa.2005.07.019 · Cited by 101 · see citing works
“…subjects has occasionally been conducted in the past 30 years (Fischette et al., 1981; Honnebier et al., 1992; Jilge, 1985; Johnson et al., 1992; Kräuchi and Wirz-Justice, 1994; Lefcourt et al., 1999; Meinrath and D’Amato, 1979; Moore-Ede et al., 1977; Robinson and Fuller, 1999; Scales et al.,…”
BackgroundAutonomic nervous system, circadian rhythms, and primary open-angle glaucoma
Gherghel, D., Hosking, S. L., & Orgül, S. (2004) · Survey of Ophthalmology · doi:10.1016/j.survophthal.2004.06.003 · Cited by 100 · see citing works
Sleep propensity is modulated by circadian and behavior-induced changes in cutaneous temperature
Van Someren, E. J. W. (2004) · Journal of Thermal Biology · doi:10.1016/j.jtherbio.2004.08.003 · Cited by 98 · see citing works
Effects of season on sleep and skin temperature in the elderly
Okamoto-Mizuno, K., & Tsuzuki, K. (2010) · International Journal of Biometeorology · doi:10.1007/s00484-009-0291-7 · Cited by 97 · see citing works
“However, forehead Tsk follows the same circadian rhythm as rectal temperature (Kräuchi and Wirz-Justice 1994), and many studies confirm the important role of the head in thermoregulation (Rasch et al.”
BackgroundLi, B., & Sano, A. (2020) · Proceedings of the ACM on Interactive Mobile Wearable and Ubiquitous Technologies · doi:10.1145/3397318 · Cited by 98 · see citing works
“ST can be reflective of many health problems (e.g. fever and heat exhaustion) [13, 73] and biological process (e.g. circadian rhythm and sleep) [48].”
BackgroundAbsence of endogenous circadian rhythmicity in blood pressure?
Kerkhof, G. (1998) · American Journal of Hypertension · doi:10.1016/s0895-7061(97)00461-5 · Cited by 95 · see citing works
Martínez-Nicolás, A., Meyer, M., Hunkler, S., Madrid, J. A., Rol, M. A., Meyer, A. H., Schötzau, A., Orgül, S., & Kräuchi, K. (2015) · Physiology & Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.physbeh.2015.06.014 · Cited by 93 · see citing works
Self-citationVarkevisser, M., Dongen, H. P. A. V., & KERKHOF, G. A. (2005) · SLEEP · doi:10.1093/sleep/28.12.1588 · Cited by 95 · see citing works
Is Sleep per se a Zeitgeber in Humans?
Danilenko, K. V., Cajochen, C., & Wirz‐Justice, A. (2003) · Journal of Biological Rhythms · doi:10.1177/0748730403251732 · Cited by 92 · see citing works
“Although CBT is primarily considered an output rhythm of the lightentrainable circadian pacemaker in the SCN, it is a also a physiologic function regulated in the rest of the body through heat production and heat loss (Kräuchi and Wirz-Justice, 1994).”
BackgroundSelf-citationWaking up properly: Is there a role of thermoregulation in sleep inertia?
Kräuchi, K., Cajochen, C., & Wirz‐Justice, A. (2004) · Journal of Sleep Research · doi:10.1111/j.1365-2869.2004.00398.x · Cited by 91 · see citing works
Scheer, F. A. J. L., van Doornen, L. J. P., & Buijs, R. M. (2003) · Autonomic Neuroscience · doi:10.1016/j.autneu.2003.03.001 · Cited by 88 · see citing works
“With the present setup, we were able to exactly replicate, in the two separate experiments, the day–night difference in resting HR as demonstrated under three independent experiments conducted under constant routine conditions (Kräuchi and Wirz-Justice, 1994; Burgess et al., 1997; Kerkhof et al., 1998), the golden-sta…”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialLo, E. H., Albers, G. W., Dichgans, M., Donnan, G. A., Esposito, E., Foster, R., Howells, D. W., Huang, Y.-G., Ji, X., Klerman, E. B., et al. (2021) · Stroke · doi:10.1161/strokeaha.120.031742 · Cited by 93 · see citing works
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Adaptive threshold-based alarm strategies for continuous vital signs monitoring
van Rossum, M., Vlaskamp, L. B., Posthuma, L. M., Visscher, M. J., Breteler, M. J. M., Hermens, H. J., Kalkman, C. J., & Preckel, B. (2021) · Journal of Clinical Monitoring and Computing · doi:10.1007/s10877-021-00666-4 · Cited by 89 · see citing works
Influence of the Circadian System on Disease Severity
Litinski, M., Scheer, F. A. J. L., & Shea, S. A. (2009) · Sleep Medicine Clinics · doi:10.1016/j.jsmc.2009.02.005 · Cited by 89 · see citing works
Life in a dark biosphere: a review of circadian physiology in “arrhythmic” environments
Beale, A. D., Whitmore, D., & Moran, D. (2016) · Journal of Comparative Physiology B · doi:10.1007/s00360-016-1000-6 · Cited by 91 · see citing works
“…rate of aerial breathers can also be used to measure metabolic rate over time (Refinetti 2003), as can the rate of carbon dioxide excretion (Krauchi and Wirz-Justice 1994), and by comparing the two values it is possible to approximate the proportion of metabolism powered by carbohydrate…”
Caffeine effects on short‐term performance during prolonged exercise in the heat
DEL COSO, J., ESTEVEZ, E., & MORA-RODRIGUEZ, R. (2008) · Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise · doi:10.1249/mss.0b013e3181621336 · Cited by 85 · see citing works
Pollmächer, T., Korth, C., Mullington, J. M., et al. (1996) · Blood · doi:10.1182/blood.v87.3.900.bloodjournal873900 · Cited by 85 · see citing works
Light Treatment for Sleep Disorders: Consensus Report
Dijk, D., Boulos, Z., Eastman, C. I., Lewy, A. J., Campbell, S. S., & Terman, M. (1995) · Journal of Biological Rhythms · doi:10.1177/074873049501000204 · Cited by 83 · see citing works
“…centered 1 to 3 h before the minimum of the endogenous component of the CBT rhythm, which under entrained conditions in healthy young subjects is located approximately 1 to 2 h before the habitual time of awakening (Czeisler et al., 1992; Krduchi and Wirz-Justice, 1994; Van Cauter et al., 1994).”
BackgroundKräuchi, K., Knoblauch, V., Wirz-Justice, A., & Cajochen, C. (2006) · American Journal of Physiology-Regulatory, Integrative and Comparative Physiology · doi:10.1152/ajpregu.00381.2005 · Cited by 83 · see citing works
Self-citationGradisar, M., & Lack, L. C. (2004) · Journal of Biological Rhythms · doi:10.1177/0748730403261560 · Cited by 82 · see citing works
“Taken together, the finding that the circadian rhythm of finger temperature precedes the CBT rhythm suggests that heat loss from distal skin temperature regions helps to cool the core in the evening and early morning (Kräuchi and Wirz-Justice, 1994; Van Someren, 2003).”
BackgroundResultCircadian rhythms in the chemoreflex control of breathing
Stephenson, R., Mohan, R. M., Duffin, J., & Jarsky, T. M. (2000) · American Journal of Physiology-Regulatory, Integrative and Comparative Physiology · doi:10.1152/ajpregu.2000.278.1.r282 · Cited by 83 · see citing works
“, hourly) time intervals, and the circadian rhythm is typically of low amplitude (,10% in nonsleeping subjects), even when studied under more rigidly controlled conditions than we used (16).”
- Authors
- Krauchi, K., & Wirz-Justice, A.
- Affiliations
- Chronobiology Laboratory, Psychiatric University Clinic, Basel,Switzerland.
- Venue
- American Journal of Physiology-Regulatory, Integrative and Comparative Physiology
- Publisher
- American Physiological Society
- Published
- 1994-09-01
- Volume
- 267
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- R819-R829
- ISSN
- 0363-6119 (ISSN-L)
- 1522-1490
- OpenAlex
- W1883140844
- Cited by
- 558
- References
- 0
- Citations by year
- 2026: 13 · 2025: 16 · 2024: 16 · 2023: 25 · 2022: 21 · 2021: 37 · 2020: 32 · 2019: 28 · 2018: 23 · 2017: 24 · 2016: 26 · 2015: 21 · 2014: 12 · 2013: 24 · 2012: 20
- FWCI
- 3.67
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- American Journal of Physiology-Regulatory, Integrative and Comparative Physiology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Endocrine and Autonomic Systems › Circadian rhythm and melatonin
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Physiology › Thermoregulation and physiological responses
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Sleep and Work-Related Fatigue
- Keywords
- circadian rhythm, thermogenesis, heat loss, heart rate, skin temperature, core body temperature, rectal temperature, constant routine, phase locking, phase advance, urinary sodium, urinary potassium, urea, urine flow, respiratory quotient, endogenous circadian rhythm
- MeSH terms
- Adult, Body Temperature, Body Temperature Regulation, Calorimetry, Indirect, Circadian Rhythm, Heart Rate, Humans, Male, Pulmonary Gas Exchange, Skin Temperature, Urine
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