Minireview: sex differences in adult and developing brains: compensation, compensation, compensation
Abstract
Despite decades of research, we do not know the functional significance of most sex differences in the brain. We are heavily invested in the idea that sex differences in brain structure cause sex differences in behavior. We rarely consider the possibility that sex differences in brain structure may also prevent sex differences in overt functions and behavior, by compensating for sex differences in physiological conditions, e.g. gonadal hormone levels that may generate undesirable sex differences if left unchecked. Such a dual function for sex differences is unlikely to be restricted to adult brains. This review will entertain the possibility that transient sex differences in gene expression in developing brains may cause permanent differences in brain structure but prevent them as well, by compensating for potentially differentiating effects of sex differences in gonadal hormone levels and sex chromosomal gene expression. Consistent application of this dual-function hypothesis will make the search for the functional significance of sex differences more productive.
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Understanding the underlying mechanisms that direct social development, particularly those that differ between males and females, may explain sex differences in vulnerability to neurodevelopmental disorders.
“Understanding the underlying mechanisms that direct social development, particularly those mechanisms that differ between males and females, may explain sex differences in vulnerability to neurodevelopmental disorders (De Vries, 2004).”
From Sexually dimorphic role for vasopressin in the development of social play (2014) · cites this paper as De Vries, 2004
The Dual-Function Hypothesis for Neural Sex Differences (p. 2) says the mechanisms underlying social behavior may differ between males and females. The discussion of developing brains (pp. 3–4) addresses sex differences in neural development, but our copy does not link those mechanisms to sex differences in vulnerability to neurodevelopmental disorders. (LLM, conf=0.84)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe compensation theory postulates that some sex differences in the brain may serve to prevent sex differences in behavior allowing males and females to display similar behaviors despite major sex differences.
“This theory postulates that some sex differences in the brain may serve to prevent sex differences in behavior allowing males and females to display similar behaviors despite major sex”
From Vasopressin regulates social play behavior in sex-specific ways through glutamate modulation in the lateral septum (2025) · cites this paper as De Vries, 2004
The finding that making sexes more alike induces a sex difference in social play is in line with the compensation theory of sex differences.
“Although perhaps a surprising finding, it is in line with the compensation theory of sex differences proposed by De Vries and colleagues (De Vries & Boyle, 1998;De Vries, 2004).”
From Vasopressin regulates social play behavior in sex-specific ways through glutamate modulation in the lateral septum (2025) · cites this paper as De Vries, 2004
Compensatory mechanisms to reduce overt sex differences in some behaviors have been proposed previously.
“Compensatory mechanisms to reduce overt sex differences in some behaviors have been proposed previously (40,41), and it is possible that NCoR may be a molecule involved in reducing some sex differences in social play behavior.”
From The Nuclear Receptor Corepressor Has Organizational Effects within the Developing Amygdala on Juvenile Social Play and Anxiety-Like Behavior (2010) · cites this paper as [40]
Sex differences in VP could have a dual function: contributing to sex differences in some behaviors while preventing sex differences in others.
“It has been proposed that these consistent sex differences in VP could have a dual function, namely contributing to sex differences in some behaviors while preventing sex differences in other behaviors”
From Vasopressin and oxytocin receptor systems in the brain: Sex differences and sex-specific regulation of social behavior (2016) · cites this paper as De Vries, 2004
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Kenkel, W. M., Gustison, M. L., & Beery, A. K. (2021) · Current Protocols · doi:10.1002/cpz1.175 · Cited by 52 · see citing works
Jessen, H. M., Kolodkin, M. H., Bychowski, M. E., Auger, C. J., & Auger, A. P. (2010) · Endocrinology · doi:10.1210/en.2009-0594 · Cited by 53 · see citing works
Sexually dimorphic role for vasopressin in the development of social play
Paul, M. J., Terranova, J. I., Probst, C. K., Murray, E. K., Ismail, N. I., & de Vries, G. J. (2014) · Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnbeh.2014.00058 · Cited by 51 · see citing works
“Understanding the underlying mechanisms that direct social development, particularly those mechanisms that differ between males and females, may explain sex differences in vulnerability to neurodevelopmental disorders (De Vries, 2004).”
BackgroundSex differences in juvenile play behavior differ among rat strains
Northcutt, K. V., & Nwankwo, V. C. (2018) · Developmental Psychobiology · doi:10.1002/dev.21760 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Bredewold, R., Washington, C., & Veenema, A. H. (2025) · Neuropsychopharmacology · doi:10.1038/s41386-024-01987-z · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Turano, A., McAuley, E. M., Muench, M. C., & Schwarz, J. M. (2021) · Behavioural Brain Research · doi:10.1016/j.bbr.2021.113449 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
- Authors
- De Vries, G. J.
- Affiliations
- Center for Neuroendocrine Studies, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, Massachusetts 01003
- Venue
- Endocrinology
- Publisher
- The Endocrine Society
- Published
- 2004-03-01
- Volume
- 145
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 1063-1068
- ISSN
- 0013-7227 (ISSN-L)
- 1945-7170
- OpenAlex
- W2046232375
- Cited by
- 486
- References
- 69
- Citations by year
- 2026: 12 · 2025: 10 · 2024: 17 · 2023: 28 · 2022: 31 · 2021: 49 · 2020: 68 · 2019: 22 · 2018: 25 · 2017: 16 · 2016: 34 · 2015: 15 · 2014: 24 · 2013: 16 · 2012: 16
- FWCI
- 0.73
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Endocrinology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institute of Mental Health (K02-MH01497, R01MH47538, K02MH001497, R01MH047538)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Molecular Biology › Sexual Differentiation and Disorders
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Genetics › Genetic and Clinical Aspects of Sex Determination and Chromosomal Abnormalities
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Sex and Gender in Healthcare
- Keywords
- sex differences in brain, brain development, compensation hypothesis, gonadal hormones, sex differences in gene expression, brain structure, sex differences in behavior, adult brain
- MeSH terms
- Animals, Brain, Sexual Behavior, Animal, Sex Characteristics, X Chromosome, Y Chromosome
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