Collective unconscious: How gut microbes shape human behavior
Open accessAbstract
The human gut harbors a dynamic and complex microbial ecosystem, consisting of approximately 1 kg of bacteria in the average adult, approximately the weight of the human brain. The evolutionary formation of a complex gut microbiota in mammals has played an important role in enabling brain development and perhaps sophisticated social interaction. Genes within the human gut microbiota, termed the microbiome, significantly outnumber human genes in the body, and are capable of producing a myriad of neuroactive compounds. Gut microbes are part of the unconscious system regulating behavior. Recent investigations indicate that these microbes majorly impact on cognitive function and fundamental behavior patterns, such as social interaction and stress management. In the absence of microbes, underlying neurochemistry is profoundly altered. Studies of gut microbes may play an important role in advancing understanding of disorders of cognitive functioning and social interaction, such as autism.
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More than 99% of the genes in our bodies are microbial, numbering over 10 million.
“more than 99% of the genes in our bodies are microbial, numbering over 10 million (D' Argenio and Salvatore, 2015;Dinan et al., 2015;Donia et al., 2014;Gill et al.,”
From The Microbiota-Gut-Brain Axis (2019) · cites this paper as Dinan et al., 2015
Section 3 (Colonization of the gut; page unavailable) says gut microbial genes are over 100-fold more abundant than human genes, supporting the claim that more than 99% are microbial. Section 5 (Microbes and neurotransmission; page unavailable) instead mentions 4–5 million non-redundant bacterial genes sequenced from the human gut; it does not support the figure of over 10 million. (LLM, conf=0.88)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredCertain species of Lactobacillus and Bifidobacterium produce GABA, Streptococcus spp. and Enterococcus spp. produce serotonin, and Lactobacillus spp. produce acetylcholine.
“For example, certain species of Lactobacillus and Bifidobacterium produce γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA), Streptococcus spp. and Enterococcus spp. produce serotonin, and Lactobacillus spp. produce acetylcholine [234,235].”
From Lactic Acid Bacteria in Raw-Milk Cheeses: From Starter Cultures to Probiotic Functions (2022) · cites this paper as [234]
Two free fatty acid receptors, FFA2 and FFA3, located in various brain regions, are bound by SCFAs.
“Two free fatty acid receptors, FFA2 and FFA3, located in various brain regions, are bound by SCFAs [53].”
From The Gut–Brain–Microbiota Connection and Its Role in Autism Spectrum Disorders (2025) · cites this paper as [53]
Several human studies found that sleep reduces total leukocyte count compared with total sleep deprivation or sleep restriction lasting a few hours to several days.
“Several studies in humans have found a reducing effect of sleep on total leukocyte count when compared with total sleep deprivation or sleep restriction for either only a few hours or up to several days (67, 69, 152, 178, 287, 326, 338, 480).”
From The Sleep-Immune Crosstalk in Health and Disease (2019) · cites this paper as [152]
Some reports show increased numbers of lymphocyte subsets (CD4 T cells, CD8 T cells, and NK cells), particularly when measured in the evening after a regular night of sleep.
“However, there are some reports of increased numbers of lymphocyte subsets (i.e., CD4 T cells, CD8 T cells, and NK cells), particularly when measured in the evening after a regular night of sleep (152, 234, 418, 556, 580).”
From The Sleep-Immune Crosstalk in Health and Disease (2019) · cites this paper as [152]
Basophils and eosinophils were not found to be affected by sleep.
“As for granulocyte subsets, basophils and eosinophils were not found to be affected by sleep (67, 152, 287, 338, 480, 580).”
From The Sleep-Immune Crosstalk in Health and Disease (2019) · cites this paper as [152]
In humans, after 64 h continuous wakefulness, monocytes still tended to be increased after a single night of recovery sleep compared with pre-deprivation levels, while recovery levels of leukocyte counts, granulocyte counts, and NK-cell activity returned to pre-deprivation levels.
“monocytes still tended to be increased after a single night of recovery sleep (duration not reported) compared with pre-deprivation levels, while recovery levels of leukocyte counts, granulocyte counts, and NK-cell activity returned to pre-deprivation levels”
From The Sleep-Immune Crosstalk in Health and Disease (2019) · cites this paper as [152]
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Self-citationGut microbiota, obesity and diabetes
Patterson, E., Ryan, P. M., Cryan, J. F., Dinan, T. G., Ross, R. P., Fitzgerald, G. F., & Stanton, C. (2016) · Postgraduate Medical Journal · doi:10.1136/postgradmedj-2015-133285 · Cited by 552 · see citing works
Self-citationAllen, A. P., Hutch, W., Borre, Y. E., Kennedy, P. J., Temko, A., Boylan, G., Murphy, E., Cryan, J. F., Dinan, T. G., & Clarke, G. (2016) · Translational Psychiatry · doi:10.1038/tp.2016.191 · Cited by 513 · see citing works
The microbiome: a key regulator of stress and neuroinflammation
Rea, K., Dinan, T. G., & Cryan, J. F. (2016) · Neurobiology of Stress · doi:10.1016/j.ynstr.2016.03.001 · Cited by 508 · see citing works
Self-citationMicrobiota-gut-brain axis: Modulator of host metabolism and appetite
van de Wouw, M., Schellekens, H., Dinan, T. G., & Cryan, J. F. (2017) · The Journal of Nutrition · doi:10.3945/jn.116.240481 · Cited by 461 · see citing works
Self-citationNutritional psychiatry: Towards improving mental health by what you eat
Adan, R. A. H., van der Beek, E. M., Buitelaar, J. K., Cryan, J. F., Hebebrand, J., Higgs, S., Schellekens, H., & Dickson, S. L. (2019) · European Neuropsychopharmacology · doi:10.1016/j.euroneuro.2019.10.011 · Cited by 454 · see citing works
Self-citationThe Possible Role of the Microbiota-Gut-Brain-Axis in Autism Spectrum Disorder
Srikantha, P., & Mohajeri, M. H. (2019) · International Journal of Molecular Sciences · doi:10.3390/ijms20092115 · Cited by 400 · see citing works
Gut microbiome and depression: what we know and what we need to know
Winter, G., Hart, R. A., Charlesworth, R. P. G., & Sharpley, C. F. (2018) · Reviews in the Neurosciences · doi:10.1515/revneuro-2017-0072 · Cited by 394 · see citing works
Kelly, J. R., Allen, A. P., Temko, A., Hutch, W., Kennedy, P. J., Farid, N., Murphy, E., Boylan, G., Bienenstock, J., Cryan, J. F., et al. (2017) · Brain, Behavior, and Immunity · doi:10.1016/j.bbi.2016.11.018 · Cited by 355 · see citing works
Self-citationThe neuroendocrinology of the microbiota-gut-brain axis: a behavioural perspective
Cussotto, S., Sandhu, K. V., Dinan, T. G., & Cryan, J. F. (2018) · Frontiers in Neuroendocrinology · doi:10.1016/j.yfrne.2018.04.002 · Cited by 326 · see citing works
“This bidirectional axis functions through a series of different routes (Bercik et al., 2012; Dinan et al., 2015; Rhee et al., 2009) and comprises an afferent and an efferent pathway.”
BackgroundBrain-Gut-Microbiota Axis and Mental Health
Dinan, T. G., & Cryan, J. F. (2017) · Psychosomatic Medicine · doi:10.1097/psy.0000000000000519 · Cited by 325 · see citing works
Self-citationBreton, J., Tennoune, N., Lucas, N., Francois, M., Legrand, R., Jacquemot, J., Goichon, A., Guérin, C., Peltier, J., Pestel-Caron, M., et al. (2016) · Cell Metabolism · doi:10.1016/j.cmet.2015.10.017 · Cited by 321 · see citing works
Irritable bowel syndrome: a gut microbiota-related disorder?
Bhattarai, Y., Muniz Pedrogo, D. A., & Kashyap, P. C. (2017) · American Journal of Physiology-Gastrointestinal and Liver Physiology · doi:10.1152/ajpgi.00338.2016 · Cited by 294 · see citing works
Lactic Acid Bacteria in Raw-Milk Cheeses: From Starter Cultures to Probiotic Functions
Coelho, M. C., Malcata, F. X., & Silva, C. C. G. (2022) · Foods · doi:10.3390/foods11152276 · Cited by 276 · see citing works
“For example, certain species of Lactobacillus and Bifidobacterium produce γ - aminobutyric acid (GABA), Streptococcus spp. and Enterococcus spp. produce serotonin, and Lactobacillus spp. produce acetylcholine [234,235].”
Cross talk: the microbiota and neurodevelopmental disorders
Kelly, J. R., Minuto, C., Cryan, J. F., Clarke, G., & Dinan, T. G. (2017) · Frontiers in Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnins.2017.00490 · Cited by 271 · see citing works
Self-citationStilling, R. M., Ryan, F. J., Hoban, A. E., Shanahan, F., Clarke, G., Claesson, M. J., Dinan, T. G., & Cryan, J. F. (2015) · Brain Behavior and Immunity · doi:10.1016/j.bbi.2015.07.009 · Cited by 233 · see citing works
Probiotic modulation of the microbiota-gut-brain axis and behaviour in zebrafish
Borrelli, L., Aceto, S., Agnisola, C., De Paolo, S., Dipineto, L., Stilling, R. M., Dinan, T. G., Cryan, J. F., Menna, L. F., & Fioretti, A. (2016) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/srep30046 · Cited by 225 · see citing works
Self-citationGanesan, K., Chung, S. K., Vanamala, J., & Xu, B. (2018) · International Journal of Molecular Sciences · doi:10.3390/ijms19123720 · Cited by 221 · see citing works
Santocchi, E., Guiducci, L., Fulceri, F., Billeci, L., Buzzigoli, E., Apicella, F., Calderoni, S., Grossi, E., Morales, M. A., & Muratori, F. (2016) · BMC Psychiatry · doi:10.1186/s12888-016-0887-5 · Cited by 213 · see citing works
Early-life adversity and brain development: Is the microbiome a missing piece of the puzzle?
O’Mahony, S. M., Clarke, G., Dinan, T. G., & Cryan, J. F. (2017) · Neuroscience · doi:10.1016/j.neuroscience.2015.09.068 · Cited by 203 · see citing works
Self-citationRole of Gut Microbiome in Autism Spectrum Disorder and Its Therapeutic Regulation
Taniya, M. A., Chung, H.-J., Al Mamun, A., Alam, S., Aziz, M. A., Emon, N. U., Islam, M. M., Hong, S.-T. S., Podder, B. R., Ara Mimi, A., et al. (2022) · Frontiers in Cellular and Infection Microbiology · doi:10.3389/fcimb.2022.915701 · Cited by 207 · see citing works
Egerod, K. L., Petersen, N., Timshel, P. N., Rekling, J. C., Wang, Y., Liu, Q., Schwartz, T. W., & Gautron, L. (2018) · Molecular Metabolism · doi:10.1016/j.molmet.2018.03.016 · Cited by 191 · see citing works
Steroids, stress and the gut microbiome-brain axis
Tetel, M. J., de Vries, G. J., Melcangi, R. C., Panzica, G., & O'Mahony, S. M. (2018) · Journal of Neuroendocrinology · doi:10.1111/jne.12548 · Cited by 187 · see citing works
Tillisch, K., Mayer, E. A., Gupta, A., Gill, Z., Brazeilles, R., Le Nevé, B., van Hylckama Vlieg, J. E. T., Guyonnet, D., Derrien, M., & Labus, J. S. (2017) · Psychosomatic Medicine · doi:10.1097/psy.0000000000000493 · Cited by 185 · see citing works
A psychology of the human brain-gut-microbiome axis
Allen, A. P., Dinan, T. G., Clarke, G., & Cryan, J. F. (2017) · Social and Personality Psychology Compass · doi:10.1111/spc3.12309 · Cited by 174 · see citing works
Self-citationPatterson, E., Ryan, P. M., Wiley, N., Carafa, I., Sherwin, E., Moloney, G., Franciosi, E., Mandal, R., Wishart, D. S., Tuohy, K., et al. (2019) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-019-51781-x · Cited by 168 · see citing works
Self-citationWei, C.-L., Wang, S., Yen, J.-T., Cheng, Y.-F., Liao, C.-L., Hsu, C.-C., Wu, C.-C., & Tsai, Y.-C. (2019) · Brain Research · doi:10.1016/j.brainres.2019.01.025 · Cited by 150 · see citing works
Bile acids: a communication channel in the gut-brain axis
Monteiro-Cardoso, V. F., Corlianò, M., & Singaraja, R. R. (2021) · NeuroMolecular Medicine · doi:10.1007/s12017-020-08625-z · Cited by 145 · see citing works
Diet, gut microbiota and cognition
Proctor, C., Thiennimitr, P., Chattipakorn, N., & Chattipakorn, S. C. (2017) · Metabolic Brain Disease · doi:10.1007/s11011-016-9917-8 · Cited by 144 · see citing works
The role of the microbiome in the neurobiology of social behaviour
Sarkar, A., Harty, S., Johnson, K. V. ‐., Moeller, A. H., Carmody, R. N., Lehto, S. M., Erdman, S. E., Dunbar, R. I. M., & Burnet, P. W. J. (2020) · Biological Reviews · doi:10.1111/brv.12603 · Cited by 135 · see citing works
Mudd, A. T., Berding, K., Wang, M., Donovan, S. M., & Dilger, R. N. (2017) · Gut Microbes · doi:10.1080/19490976.2017.1353849 · Cited by 134 · see citing works
KUWAHARA, A., MATSUDA, K., KUWAHARA, Y., ASANO, S., INUI, T., & MARUNAKA, Y. (2020) · Biomedical Research · doi:10.2220/biomedres.41.199 · Cited by 112 · see citing works
Jadhav, K. S., Peterson, V. L., Halfon, O., Ahern, G., Fouhy, F., Stanton, C., Dinan, T. G., Cryan, J. F., & Boutrel, B. (2018) · Neuropharmacology · doi:10.1016/j.neuropharm.2018.08.026 · Cited by 101 · see citing works
Self-citationDargenio, V. N., Dargenio, C., Castellaneta, S., De Giacomo, A., Laguardia, M., Schettini, F., Francavilla, R., & Cristofori, F. (2023) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu15071620 · Cited by 98 · see citing works
The connection between microbiome and schizophrenia
Golofast, B., & Vales, K. (2020) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2019.12.011 · Cited by 92 · see citing works
Gut microbiota dysbiosis enhances migraine-like pain via TNFα upregulation
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Gut microbiota regulates key modulators of social behavior
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The gut microbiome in anorexia nervosa: relevance for nutritional rehabilitation
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Psychedelic therapy's transdiagnostic effects: A research domain criteria (RDoC) perspective
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Targeting the Microbiota in Pharmacology of Psychiatric Disorders
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Evidences of a new psychobiotic formulation on body composition and anxiety
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The microbiome and disorders of the central nervous system
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The Gut–Brain–Microbiota Connection and Its Role in Autism Spectrum Disorders
Młynarska, E., Barszcz, E., Budny, E., Gajewska, A., Kopeć, K., Wasiak, J., Rysz, J., & Franczyk, B. (2025) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu17071135 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
Host response: a trigger for neurodegeneration?
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Self-citationThe endocannabinoid system: a bridge between alzheimer’s disease and gut microbiota
Bisogno, T., Lauritano, A., & Piscitelli, F. (2021) · Life · doi:10.3390/life11090934 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
- Authors
- Dinan, T. G., Stilling, R. M., Stanton, C., & Cryan, J. F.
- Affiliations
- University College Cork (IE)
- Teagasc - The Irish Agriculture and Food Development Authority (IE)
- Corresponding author
- Dinan, Timothy G.
- Venue
- Journal of Psychiatric Research
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2015-04
- Volume
- 63
- Pages
- 1-9
- ISSN
- 0022-3956 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W1997003800
- Cited by
- 571
- References
- 78
- Citations by year
- 2026: 21 · 2025: 45 · 2024: 39 · 2023: 80 · 2022: 54 · 2021: 59 · 2020: 50 · 2019: 51 · 2018: 50 · 2017: 54 · 2016: 45 · 2015: 22
- FWCI
- 5.53
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Journal of Psychiatric Research (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Arrow@dit (Dublin Institute of Technology) (acceptedVersion)
- T-Stór (Teagasc) (acceptedVersion, cc-by-nc-sa)
- T-Stór (Teagasc) (acceptedVersion, cc-by-sa)
- Arrow@dit (Dublin Institute of Technology) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-sa)
- T-Stór (Teagasc) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-sa)
- Funders
- Science Foundation Ireland (SFI/12/RC/2273)
- Health Research Board of Ireland (HRA_POR/2011/23, HRA_POR/2012/32)
- European Community's Seventh Framework Programme (FP7/2007-2013)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Molecular Biology › Gut microbiota and health
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Biological Psychiatry › Tryptophan and brain disorders
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Gastroenterology › Gastrointestinal motility and disorders
- Keywords
- gut microbiota, microbiome, gut-brain axis, neuroactive compounds, social behavior, stress response, cognitive function, autism spectrum disorder, neurochemistry
- MeSH terms
- Behavior, Brain, Humans, Mental Health, Gastrointestinal Tract, Microbiota
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