Relations between executive function and academic achievement from ages 5 to 17 in a large, representative national sample.
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This study examined age-related changes in complex executive function (EF) in a large, representative sample (N = 2,036) aged 5 to 17 using the Cognitive Assessment System (CAS; Naglieri & Das, 1997a). Relations between complex EF and academic achievement were examined on a sub-sample (N = 1,395) given the Woodcock-Johnson Tests of Achievement-Revised (Woodcock & Johnson, 1989). Performance on the three complex EF tasks improved until at least age 15, although improvement slowed with increasing age and varied some across tasks. Moreover, the different developmental patterns in the correlations between completion time and accuracy provide clues to developmental processes. Examination of individual achievement subtests clarified the specific aspects of academic performance most related to complex EF. Finally, the correlation between complex EF and academic achievement varied across ages, but the developmental pattern of the strength of these correlations was remarkably similar for overall math and reading achievement, suggesting a domain-general relation between complex EF and academic achievement.
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The difficulty of executive functions can be detrimental to academic performance in novel situations or when complex problem solving is necessary.
“The difficulty of EF can be detrimental to academic performance in novel situations or when complex problem solving is necessary (Best et al., 2011).”
From Assessment of executive functions in school-aged children: A narrative review (2022) · cites this paper as Best et al., 2011
The Discussion (§4.2; page unavailable) reports that complex executive function was more strongly correlated with applied math problem-solving than with calculation, supporting the complex-problem-solving part of the claim. The paper does not establish that EF difficulties cause poorer academic performance in novel situations; that condition was not directly tested. (LLM, conf=0.84)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredCognitive control has been established as a determining factor of academic performance.
“cognitive control has been established as a determining factor of academic performance [35,36].”
From Lifestyle Habits Predict Academic Performance in High School Students: The Adolescent Student Academic Performance Longitudinal Study (ASAP) (2019) · cites this paper as [35]
The Discussion (§4.2; page unavailable) reports significant correlations between executive-function tasks and reading and math achievement. The Introduction (§1.2; page unavailable) says longitudinal research suggests executive function contributes to achievement, but this paper examines associations; it does not establish cognitive control as a determining factor. (LLM, conf=0.87)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
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Promoting Social Inclusion in Educational Settings: Challenges and Opportunities
Juvonen, J., Lessard, L. M., Rastogi, R., Schacter, H. L., & Smith, D. S. (2019) · Educational Psychologist · doi:10.1080/00461520.2019.1655645 · Cited by 344 · see citing works
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Physical activity and academic achievement in children: a historical perspective
Howie, E. K., & Pate, R. R. (2012) · Journal of Sport and Health Science · doi:10.1016/j.jshs.2012.09.003 · Cited by 297 · see citing works
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Ahmed, S. F., Tang, S., Waters, N. E., & Davis-Kean, P. (2019) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/edu0000296 · Cited by 293 · see citing works
Direct and indirect influences of executive functions on mathematics achievement
Cragg, L., Keeble, S., Richardson, S., Roome, H. E., & Gilmore, C. K. (2017) · Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2017.01.014 · Cited by 290 · see citing works
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Individual Variation in Functional Topography of Association Networks in Youth
Cui, Z., Li, H., Xia, C. H., Larsen, B., Adebimpe, A., Baum, G. L., Cieslak, M., Gur, R. E., Gur, R. C., Moore, T. M., et al. (2020) · Neuron · doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2020.01.029 · Cited by 269 · see citing works
Annual Research Review: Educational neuroscience: progress and prospects
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Neural substrates of early executive function development
Fiske, A., & Holmboe, K. (2019) · Developmental Review · doi:10.1016/j.dr.2019.100866 · Cited by 264 · see citing works
Learning executive function and early mathematics: Directions of causal relations
Clements, D. H., Sarama, J. H., & Germeroth, C. (2015) · Early Childhood Research Quarterly · doi:10.1016/j.ecresq.2015.12.009 · Cited by 246 · see citing works
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Less-structured time in children's daily lives predicts self-directed executive functioning
Barker, J. E., Semenov, A. D., Michaelson, L. E., Provan, L. S., Snyder, H. R., & Munakata, Y. (2014) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00593 · Cited by 223 · see citing works
Jones, A., Hardman, C. A., Lawrence, N., & Field, M. (2017) · Appetite · doi:10.1016/j.appet.2017.05.032 · Cited by 215 · see citing works
The neurodevelopment of executive function skills: Implications for academic achievement gaps.
Zelazo, P. D., & Carlson, S. M. (2020) · Psychology & Neuroscience · doi:10.1037/pne0000208 · Cited by 229 · see citing works
Genes, Environments, and Time: The Biology of Adversity and Resilience
Boyce, W. T., Levitt, P. R., Martínez, F. D., McEwen, B. S., & Shonkoff, J. P. (2021) · PEDIATRICS · doi:10.1542/peds.2020-1651 · Cited by 212 · see citing works
Scionti, N., Cavallero, M., Zogmaister, C., & Marzocchi, G. M. (2020) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02812 · Cited by 193 · see citing works
“Over the past decades, an increasing body of empirical results has demonstrated that the development of EFs during early childhood plays an important role in supporting school readiness and social-emotional development, and in predicting which cognitive abilities will be required for succeeding in school (Best et al.,…”
BackgroundEnhancing Preschoolers’ Self-Regulation Via Mindful Yoga
Razza, R. A., Bergen‐Cico, D., & Raymond, K. (2013) · Journal of Child and Family Studies · doi:10.1007/s10826-013-9847-6 · Cited by 198 · see citing works
Neurocognitive features in clinical subgroups of bipolar disorder: A meta-analysis.
Bora, E. (2018) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2017.12.057 · Cited by 179 · see citing works
How do different aspects of self-regulation predict successful adaptation to school?
Neuenschwander, R., Röthlisberger, M., Cimeli, P., & Roebers, C. M. (2012) · Journal of Experimental Child Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2012.07.004 · Cited by 181 · see citing works
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Executive function as a mediator between SES and academic achievement throughout childhood
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“…from the inclusion of a classic inhibition task (e.g. ‘Go-No-Go’), but it has been noted that shifting and working memory tasks also tap inhibition (Best & Miller, 2010; Roberts & Pennington, 1996) so it is likely that the EF tasks in this measurement model required an inhibition component.”
Executive Functions in Children With Specific Language Impairment: A Meta-Analysis
Pauls, L. J., & Archibald, L. M. D. (2016) · Journal of Speech Language and Hearing Research · doi:10.1044/2016_jslhr-l-15-0174 · Cited by 161 · see citing works
Rosen, M. L., Sheridan, M. A., Sambrook, K., Meltzoff, A. N., & McLaughlin, K. A. (2018) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2018.02.043 · Cited by 162 · see citing works
Espinet, S. D., Anderson, J. E., & Zelazo, P. D. (2013) · Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1016/j.dcn.2012.11.009 · Cited by 121 · see citing works
Morgan, P. L., Farkas, G., Hillemeier, M. M., Pun, W. H., & Maczuga, S. (2018) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/cdev.13095 · Cited by 157 · see citing works
Guhn, M., Emerson, S. D., & Gouzouasis, P. (2020) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/edu0000376 · Cited by 167 · see citing works
Can computational talent be detected? Predictive validity of the Computational Thinking Test
Román-González, ., Pérez-González, J. C., Moreno-León, J., & Robles, G. (2018) · International Journal of Child-Computer Interaction · doi:10.1016/j.ijcci.2018.06.004 · Cited by 146 · see citing works
Genes Unite Executive Functions in Childhood
Engelhardt, L. E., Briley, D. A., Mann, F. D., Harden, K. P., & Tucker-Drob, E. M. (2015) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/0956797615577209 · Cited by 136 · see citing works
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“The current analyses made use of the measures available just before children entering kindergarten in the SECCYD given that executive functions at this time appear to be important to later achievement (e.g., Best et al., 2011; Blair & Razza, 2007; McClelland et al., 2006).”
MethodAn Integrated Model of Regulation for Applied Settings
Bailey, R. J., & Jones, S. M. (2019) · Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10567-019-00288-y · Cited by 148 · see citing works
Sleep Disordered Breathing and Academic Performance: A Meta-analysis
Galland, B. C., Spruyt, K., Dawes, P. J. D., McDowall, P. S., Elder, D. E., & Schaughency, E. A. (2015) · PEDIATRICS · doi:10.1542/peds.2015-1677 · Cited by 140 · see citing works
Testing longitudinal associations between executive function and academic achievement.
Willoughby, M. T., Wylie, A. C., & Little, M. H. (2018) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/dev0000664 · Cited by 140 · see citing works
Greenberg, A., Bellana, B., & Bialystok, E. (2012) · Cognitive Development · doi:10.1016/j.cogdev.2012.10.002 · Cited by 139 · see citing works
Associations between gross motor skills and cognitive development in toddlers.
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Aadland, K. N., Moe, V. F., Aadland, E., Anderssen, S. A., Resaland, G. K., & Ommundsen, Y. (2017) · Mental Health and Physical Activity · doi:10.1016/j.mhpa.2017.01.001 · Cited by 134 · see citing works
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Exercise, cognition, and the adolescent brain
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Far transfer to language and math of a short software-based gaming intervention.
Goldin, A. P., Hermida, M. J., Shalom, D. E., Elias Costa, M., Lopez-Rosenfeld, M., Segretin, M. S., Fernández-Slezak, D., Lipina, S. J., & Sigman, M. (2014) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.1320217111 · Cited by 131 · see citing works
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Autonomy-supportive parenting and associations with child and parent executive function
Distefano, R., Galinsky, E., McClelland, M. M., Zelazo, P. D., & Carlson, S. M. (2018) · Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.appdev.2018.04.007 · Cited by 127 · see citing works
Malanchini, M., Engelhardt, L. E., Grotzinger, A. D., Harden, K. P., & Tucker–Drob, E. M. (2018) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/pspp0000224 · Cited by 126 · see citing works
Executive functioning predicts academic achievement in middle school: A four-year longitudinal study
Samuels, W. E., Tournaki, N., Blackman, S., & Zilinski, C. (2016) · The Journal of Educational Research · doi:10.1080/00220671.2014.979913 · Cited by 150 · see citing works
“For example, investigating a large sample of 2,036 children from 5 to 17 years old, Best, Miller, and Naglieri (2011) found that performance on EFrelated tasks improved at least until age 15, although improvements in the later years were less pronounced.”
BackgroundKaushanskaya, M., Park, J. S., Gangopadhyay, I., Davidson, M. M., & Weismer, S. E. (2017) · Journal of Speech Language and Hearing Research · doi:10.1044/2016_jslhr-l-15-0310 · Cited by 123 · see citing works
Obesity-associated biomarkers and executive function in children
Miller, A. L., Lee, H. J., & Lumeng, J. C. (2015) · Pediatric Research · doi:10.1038/pr.2014.158 · Cited by 122 · see citing works
“As such, the executive system can shape multiple cognitive and behavioral outcomes across the lifespan, ranging from specific academic skills (1), to intelligence quotient scores (2) and overall school achievement (3).”
Executive Function Buffers the Association between Early Math and Later Academic Skills
Ribner, A., Willoughby, M. T., & Blair, C. (2017) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00869 · Cited by 127 · see citing works
“EF skills are important for children’s learning, especially in their ability to attend to and integrate information taught in classroom settings, and have been implicated in the development of academic skills (Blair, 2002; Blair and Razza, 2007; Best et al., 2011).”
BackgroundJäger, K., Schmidt, M., Conzelmann, A., & Roebers, C. M. (2014) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2014.01473 · Cited by 122 · see citing works
“Against the background of EFs being highly relevant for school achievement (Riggs et al., 2004; Blair and Diamond, 2008; Best et al., 2011; Roebers et al., 2011, 2014; Diamond, 2012) and the theoretical assumption of shared cognitive processes involved in both motor and cognitive control (Diamond,…”
BackgroundInfluentialNature and measurement of attention control.
Burgoyne, A. P., Tsukahara, J. S., Mashburn, C. A., Pak, R., & Engle, R. W. (2023) · Journal of Experimental Psychology General · doi:10.1037/xge0001408 · Cited by 126 · see citing works
“, 1999; Martin, Mashburn, & Engle, 2020; McVay & Kane, 2012) and academic achievement (Ahmed et al., 2019; Best et al., 2011) to health behaviors (Allan et al.”
Vilgis, V., Silk, T. J., & Vance, A. L. A. (2015) · European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry · doi:10.1007/s00787-015-0675-7 · Cited by 118 · see citing works
“Deficits in attention, memory and problem solving may have profound impact on daily activities, particularly in children and adolescents, whose academic achievement may dependent on these skills [4, 9].”
BackgroundViterbori, P., Usai, M. C., Traverso, L., & Franchis, V. D. (2015) · Journal of Experimental Child Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2015.06.014 · Cited by 118 · see citing works
Skibbe, L. E., Montroy, J. J., Bowles, R. P., & Morrison, F. J. (2018) · Early Childhood Research Quarterly · doi:10.1016/j.ecresq.2018.02.005 · Cited by 120 · see citing works
Executive Functioning, Motor Difficulties, and Developmental Coordination Disorder
Leonard, H. C., Bernardi, M., Hill, E. L., & Henry, L. A. (2015) · Developmental Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/87565641.2014.997933 · Cited by 110 · see citing works
“This has important implications for parents and teachers, as EF ability can impact on educational achievement (e.g., Best et al., 2011; St. Clair-Thompson & Gathercole, 2006).”
BackgroundBarac, R., Moreno, S., & Bialystok, E. (2016) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/cdev.12538 · Cited by 109 · see citing works
Ağırdağ, O., & Vanlaar, G. (2016) · International Journal of Bilingualism · doi:10.1177/1367006916658711 · Cited by 113 · see citing works
“In the US, Brenneman et al. (2007) focused on the effects of language use and preference of English-Spanish speaking children on their reading achievement.”
BackgroundBerthelsen, D. C., Hayes, N., White, S. L. J., & Williams, K. E. (2017) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00903 · Cited by 112 · see citing works
Executive Function in SLI: Recent Advances and Future Directions
Kapa, L. L., & Plante, E. (2015) · Current Developmental Disorders Reports · doi:10.1007/s40474-015-0050-x · Cited by 113 · see citing works
Egger, F., Conzelmann, A., & Schmidt, M. (2018) · Psychology of sport and exercise · doi:10.1016/j.psychsport.2018.02.014 · Cited by 111 · see citing works
Parent-report and performance-based measures of executive function assess different constructs
Eycke, K. T., & Dewey, D. (2015) · Child Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/09297049.2015.1065961 · Cited by 108 · see citing works
“Best et al. (2011) examined the association between performance-based, complex EFs and academic performance using the Cognitive Assessment System (Naglieri & Das, 1997).”
MethodResultMiller‐Cotto, D., Smith, L. V., Wang, A. H., & Ribner, A. (2021) · Infant and Child Development · doi:10.1002/icd.2286 · Cited by 107 · see citing works
van der Niet, A. G., Hartman, E., Smith, J., & Visscher, C. (2014) · Psychology of sport and exercise · doi:10.1016/j.psychsport.2014.02.010 · Cited by 110 · see citing works
Frick, M. A., Forslund, T., Fransson, M., Johansson, M., Bohlin, G., & Brocki, K. C. (2017) · British Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1111/bjop.12266 · Cited by 104 · see citing works
Muir, R. A., Howard, S. J., & Kervin, L. K. (2023) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-023-09740-6 · Cited by 103 · see citing works
“Several authors have emphasised that in real-life situations, tasks generally require an integration and interplay of these three EFs (Best et al., 2011; Diamond, 2013; McClelland & Cameron, 2012, 2019), thereby making it difficult to identify the extent to which a specific EF influences a behaviour, response or outco…”
BackgroundTraining Literacy Skills through Sign Language
Rudner, M., Andin, J., Rönnberg, J., Heimann, M., Hermansson, A., Nelson, K., & Tjus, T. (2015) · Deafness & Education International · doi:10.1179/1557069x14y.0000000037 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
“In addition, executive functions are needed to process the content of working memory and carry out multiple steps in comparisons of structures, abstraction of new structures, and encoding new structures into long-term memory (Best et al., 2011).”
BackgroundFuhs, M. W., Farran, D. C., & Nesbitt, K. T. (2014) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0037366 · Cited by 102 · see citing works
What are the metacognitive costs of young children’s overconfidence?
Destan, N., & Roebers, C. M. (2015) · Metacognition and Learning · doi:10.1007/s11409-014-9133-z · Cited by 83 · see citing works
School-entry skills predicting school-age academic and social–emotional trajectories
Burchinal, M., Foster, T. J., Garber, K. L., Bratsch‐Hines, M., Blair, C., & Vernon‐Feagans, L. (2019) · Early Childhood Research Quarterly · doi:10.1016/j.ecresq.2019.08.004 · Cited by 109 · see citing works
Executive function in Down syndrome: A meta-analysis
Tungate, A. S., & Conners, F. A. (2020) · Research in Developmental Disabilities · doi:10.1016/j.ridd.2020.103802 · Cited by 99 · see citing works
Improving high school students' executive functions through digital game play
Homer, B. D., Plass, J. L., Raffaele, C., Ober, T. M., & Ali, A. (2017) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2017.09.011 · Cited by 102 · see citing works
Minority Achievement Gaps in STEM
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Desarrollo de funciones ejecutivas, de la niñez a la juventud
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Nurturing the preterm infant brain: leveraging neuroplasticity to improve neurobehavioral outcomes
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Trends in Language Acquisition Research
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The factor structure of executive function in childhood and adolescence.
Laureys, F., De Waelle, S., Barendse, M. T., Lenoir, M., & Deconinck, F. J. A. (2022) · Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.intell.2021.101600 · Cited by 92 · see citing works
A systematic assessment of socioeconomic status and executive functioning in early childhood
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The neural architecture of executive functions is established by middle childhood
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Degree of bilingualism modifies executive control in Hispanic children in the USA
Thomas-Sunesson, D., Hakuta, K., & Bialystok, E. (2016) · International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism · doi:10.1080/13670050.2016.1148114 · Cited by 91 · see citing works
“In turn, better executive control has been shown to be associated with enhanced academic performance, especially in the areas of math and reading (Best, Miller, and Naglieri 2011; Blair and Razza 2007).”
BackgroundMemory and executive functioning in 12‐year‐old children with a history of institutional rearing
Bick, J., Zeanah, C. H., Fox, N. A., & Nelson, C. A. (2018) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/cdev.12952 · Cited by 90 · see citing works
- Authors
- Best, J. R., Miller, P. H., & Naglieri, J. A.
- Affiliations
- Washington University in St. Louis (US)
- San Francisco State University (US)
- George Mason University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Best, John R.
- Venue
- Learning and Individual Differences
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2011-08
- Volume
- 21
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 327-336
- ISSN
- 1041-6080 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC3155246
- OpenAlex
- W2062718236
- Cited by
- 1,294
- References
- 86
- Citations by year
- 2026: 79 · 2025: 99 · 2024: 88 · 2023: 109 · 2022: 147 · 2021: 132 · 2020: 127 · 2019: 110 · 2018: 110 · 2017: 77 · 2016: 77 · 2015: 60 · 2014: 40 · 2013: 25 · 2012: 13
- FWCI
- 32.37
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- Learning and Individual Differences (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases (R01DK070922, R01DK060692)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Neuropsychology and Physiological Psychology › Developmental and Educational Neuropsychology
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Abilities and Testing
- Social Sciences › Education › Early Childhood Education and Development
- Keywords
- executive function, academic performance, cognitive development, age-related changes, cognitive assessment, mathematics achievement, reading achievement, domain-general cognition, children and adolescents
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