Early Life Programming and Neurodevelopmental Disorders
Open accessAbstract
For more than a century, clinical investigators have focused on early life as a source of adult psychopathology. Early theories about psychic conflict and toxic parenting have been replaced by more recent formulations of complex interactions of genes and environment. Although the hypothesized mechanisms have evolved, a central notion remains: early life is a period of unique sensitivity during which experience confers enduring effects. The mechanisms for these effects remain almost as much a mystery today as they were a century ago. Recent studies suggest that maternal diet can program offspring growth and metabolic pathways, altering lifelong susceptibility to diabetes and obesity. If maternal psychosocial experience has similar programming effects on the developing offspring, one might expect a comparable contribution to neurodevelopmental disorders, including affective disorders, schizophrenia, autism, and eating disorders. Due to their early onset, prevalence, and chronicity, some of these disorders, such as depression and schizophrenia, are among the highest causes of disability worldwide according to the World Health Organization 2002 report. Consideration of the early life programming and transcriptional regulation in adult exposures supports a critical need to understand epigenetic mechanisms as a critical determinant in disease predisposition. Incorporating the latest insight gained from clinical and epidemiological studies with potential epigenetic mechanisms from basic research, the following review summarizes findings from a workshop on Early Life Programming and Neurodevelopmental Disorders held at the University of Pennsylvania in 2009.
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Diverse environmental factors have been implicated as risk factors for ASD, including maternal stress and drug use, paternal age, nutritional status, hormones, and environmental chemicals.
“Diverse environmental factors have been implicated as risk factors for ASD, including maternal stress and drug use, paternal age, nutritional status, hormones, and environmental chemicals [ 14 , 25–29 ].”
From DNA methylation: a mechanism linking environmental chemical exposures to risk of autism spectrum disorders? (2016) · cites this paper as [25]
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- Authors
- Bale, T. L., Baram, T. Z., Brown, A. S., Goldstein, J. M., Insel, T. R., McCarthy, M. M., Nemeroff, C. B., Reyes, T. M., Simerly, R. B., Susser, E. S., & Nestler, E. J.
- Affiliations
- University of Pennsylvania (US)
- University of California, Irvine (US)
- New York State Psychiatric Institute (US)
- Brigham and Women's Hospital (US)
- National Institutes of Health (US)
- University of Maryland, Baltimore (US)
- University of Miami (US)
- University of Southern California (US)
- Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai (US)
- Corresponding author
- Bale, Tracy L.
- ORCID
- Venue
- Biological Psychiatry
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2010-08
- Volume
- 68
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 314-319
- ISSN
- 0006-3223 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC3168778
- OpenAlex
- W2004052823
- Cited by
- 961
- References
- 83
- Citations by year
- 2026: 39 · 2025: 46 · 2024: 49 · 2023: 49 · 2022: 68 · 2021: 78 · 2020: 72 · 2019: 79 · 2018: 67 · 2017: 65 · 2016: 58 · 2015: 78 · 2014: 61 · 2013: 51 · 2012: 55
- FWCI
- 7.15
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- Biological Psychiatry (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- eScholarship (California Digital Library) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- Funders
- National Institutes of Health (MH086157)
- AstraZeneca and consults for PsychoGenics and Merck
- AstraZeneca
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Pediatrics, Perinatology and Child Health › Birth, Development, and Health
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Maternal Mental Health During Pregnancy and Postpartum
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child Abuse and Trauma
- Keywords
- early life programming, neurodevelopmental disorders, epigenetics, gene-environment interaction, maternal diet, schizophrenia, autism spectrum disorder, depression, eating disorders, mood disorders, transcriptional regulation, developmental origins of health and disease
- MeSH terms
- Animals, Mental Disorders, Brain, Disease Models, Animal, Environment, Female, Humans, Sex Factors, Gene Expression Regulation, Developmental, Maternal Exposure, Genetic Predisposition to Disease, Epigenesis, Genetic, Fetal Development
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