Suicide as escape from self.

Baumeister, Roy F.

doi:10.1037/0033-295x.97.1.90

Cited by 1,919Suicide and Self-Harm StudiesDeath Anxiety and Social ExclusionPsychological Treatments and Disorders

Suicide as escape from self.

Baumeister, Roy F.·1990·Psychological Review

DOI 10.1037/0033-295x.97.1.90

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Abstract

Suicide is analyzed in terms of motivations to escape from aversive self-awareness. The causal chain begins with events that fall severely short of standards and expectations. These failures are attributed internally, which makes self-awareness painful. Awareness of the self's inadequacies generates negative affect, and the individual therefore desires to escape from self-awareness and the associated affect. The person tries to achieve a state of cognitive deconstruction (constricted temporal focus, concrete thinking, immediate or proximal goals, cognitive rigidity, and rejection of meaning), which helps prevent meaningful self-awareness and emotion. The deconstructed state brings irrationality and disinhibition, making drastic measures seem acceptable. Suicide can be seen as an ultimate step in the effort to escape from self and world.

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Behavioral manifestations of self-awareness include avoidance, self-harm, increased emotional intensity, and self-regulation.
“Some of the behavioral manifestations found in previous research are avoidance (Moskalenko and Heine 2003), self-harm (Baumeister 1990; Morin and Craig 2000), increased emotional intensity (Silvia 2002), and -particularly pertinent to our research -self-regulation (Bandura 1978; Carver and Scheier 2004; Kanfer 1977).”
From Paradoxical effects of self-awareness of being observed: testing the effect of police body-worn cameras on assaults and aggression against officers (2018) · cites this paper as Baumeister 1990
Some predominant psychological frameworks that attempt to explain suicide, particularly the entrapment/cry of pain model, include escape from pain as a key factor.
“Some of the predominant psychological frameworks that attempt to explain suicide, particularly the entrapment/cry of pain model, include escape from pain as a key factor [17-19].”
From Efficacy of acceptance and commitment therapy in reducing suicidal ideation and deliberate self-harm: Systematic review (2018) · cites this paper as [17]
Accepting reality and reducing avoidance are fundamental aims of ACT, and this therapeutic work is aligned with theories of suicide that focus on an individual's sense of entrapment and/or desire to escape their current reality.
“Accepting reality and reducing avoidance are fundamental aims of ACT, and this therapeutic work is aligned with the theories of suicide that focus on an individual’s sense of entrapment and/or desire to escape their current reality [17-19].”
From Efficacy of acceptance and commitment therapy in reducing suicidal ideation and deliberate self-harm: Systematic review (2018) · cites this paper as [17]

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Vinoda, K. S. (1966) · The British Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1192/bjp.112.492.1143 · Cited by 66 · see citing works
Attempted Suicide in Young Women: Correlates of Lethality
Goldney, R. D. (1981) · The British Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1192/bjp.139.5.382 · Cited by 66 · see citing works
Work and Suicide: An Empirical Investigation
Shepherd, D. M., & Barraclough, B. M. (1980) · The British Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1192/bjp.136.5.469 · Cited by 65 · see citing works
Masochism and the Self
Baumeister, R. F. (2014) · Psychology Press eBooks · doi:10.4324/9781315807713 · Cited by 62 · see citing works
Self-citation
Five Components of a Basic Suicide Syndrome*
Breed, W. (1972) · Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior · doi:10.1111/j.1943-278x.1972.tb00451.x · Cited by 61 · see citing works
The Gamble with Death in Attempted Suicide
Weiss, J. M. (1957) · Psychiatry · doi:10.1080/00332747.1957.11023072 · Cited by 61 · see citing works
The Association between the Quality of Life and Suicide and Homicide Rates
Lester, D. (1984) · The Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1080/00224545.1984.9922853 · Cited by 54 · see citing works
SUICIDE FOLLOWING PSYCHIATRIC HOSPITALIZATION
Pokorny, A. D., & Kaplan, H. B. (1976) · The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease · doi:10.1097/00005053-197602000-00006 · Cited by 52 · see citing works
Anxiety and deconstruction: On escaping the self.
Baumeister, R. F. (1990) · Cited by 52 · see citing works
Self-citation
Stream of consciousness and stress: Levels of thinking.
Pennebaker, J. W. (1989) · Cited by 52 · see citing works
Suicide thoughts and reflections, 1960-1980.
Shneidman, E. S. (1981) · PubMed · Cited by 50 · see citing works
The Role of Drugs in Adolescent Suicide Attempts
McKenry, P. C., Tishler, C. L., & Kelley, C. (1983) · Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior · doi:10.1111/j.1943-278x.1983.tb00014.x · Cited by 50 · see citing works
Suicide in different cultures
Farberow, N. L. (1975) · DigitalGeorgetown (Georgetown University Library) · Cited by 49 · see citing works
An analysis of the verbal content of suicide notes
Gottschalk, L. A., & Gleser, G. C. (1960) · British Journal of Medical Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.2044-8341.1960.tb01240.x · Cited by 49 · see citing works
Suicidal tendencies among college students
Braaten, L. J., & Darling, C. D. (1962) · Psychiatric Quarterly · doi:10.1007/bf01586147 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
Female Labor Force Participation, Status Integration and Suicide, 1950–1969
Davis, R. A. (1981) · Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior · doi:10.1111/j.1943-278x.1981.tb00910.x · Cited by 47 · see citing works
On Precipitating Factors: Cancer as a Cause of Suicide
Marshall, J. R., Burnett, W., & Brasure, J. (1983) · Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior · doi:10.1111/j.1943-278x.1983.tb00002.x · Cited by 47 · see citing works
Suicide and Parasuicide in Childhood and Early Adolescence
Brooksbank, D. J. (1985) · The British Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1192/bjp.146.5.459 · Cited by 46 · see citing works
The Frequency of Suicides around Major Public Holidays: Some Surprising Findings
Phillips, D. P., & Liu, J. (1980) · Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior · doi:10.1111/j.1943-278x.1980.tb00696.x · Cited by 46 · see citing works
Overdoses: Explanations and Attitudes in Self-Poisoners and Significant Others
James, D., & Hawton, K. E. (1985) · The British Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1192/bjp.146.5.481 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
Suicide in the U.S. Army: Epidemiological and Periodic Aspects
Rothberg, J. M., & Jones, F. D. (1987) · Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior · doi:10.1111/j.1943-278x.1987.tb01025.x · Cited by 45 · see citing works
Cognitive Rigidity in Suicide Attempters
Perrah, M., & Wichman, H. (1987) · Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior · doi:10.1111/j.1943-278x.1987.tb00271.x · Cited by 45 · see citing works
Stress in the lives of parasuicides
Cochrane, R., & Robertson, A. (1975) · Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology · doi:10.1007/bf00578940 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
Suicide among Police in a Federal Force
Loo, R. (1986) · Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior · doi:10.1111/j.1943-278x.1986.tb01019.x · Cited by 43 · see citing works
Suicidal Behavior: Toward an Explanation of Differences in Female and Male Rates
Wilson, M. (1981) · Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior · doi:10.1111/j.1943-278x.1981.tb00779.x · Cited by 43 · see citing works
War and Suicide*
Rojcewicz, S. J., Jr. (1971) · Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior · doi:10.1111/j.1943-278x.1971.tb00598.x · Cited by 42 · see citing works
Social and Cognitive Treatment of Children and Adolescents
Barth, R. P. (1986) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 41 · see citing works
Life Stress, Medical Lethality, and Suicidal Intent
Power, K., Cooke, D. J., & Brooks, D. N. (1985) · The British Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1192/bjp.147.6.655 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
Attitudes toward Self in Suicidal Individuals*
Neuringer, C. (1974) · Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior · doi:10.1111/j.1943-278x.1974.tb00871.x · Cited by 40 · see citing works
Divergencies between attitudes towards life and death among suicidal, psychosomatic, and normal hospitalized patients.
Neuringer, C. (1968) · Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1037/h0025450 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
Suicidal Women and Their Relationships with Husbands, Boyfriends, and Lovers
Stephens, B. J. (1985) · Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior · doi:10.1111/j.1943-278x.1985.tb00643.x · Cited by 39 · see citing works
Religiosity and Self‐Destructive Crises in the Institutionalized Elderly
Nelson, F. L. (1977) · Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior · doi:10.1111/j.1943-278x.1977.tb00419.x · Cited by 38 · see citing works
Suicide in Japan: Socioeconomic Effects on Its Secular and Seasonal Trends
Araki, S., & Murata, K. (1987) · Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior · doi:10.1111/j.1943-278x.1987.tb00062.x · Cited by 38 · see citing works
Child Abuse and Attempted Suicide
Roberts, J., & Hawton, K. E. (1980) · The British Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1192/bjp.137.4.319 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
The Cognitive Organization of Meaning in Suicidal Individuals
Neuringer, C. (1967) · The Journal of General Psychology · doi:10.1080/00221309.1967.9710744 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
SUICIDE AMONG PHYSICIAN-PATIENTS
SIMON, W., & Lumry, G. K. (1968) · The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease · doi:10.1097/00005053-196808000-00002 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
The motivation and emotional state of 91 cases of attempted suicide
Birtchnell, J., & Alarcón, J. S. R. (1971) · British Journal of Medical Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.2044-8341.1971.tb02145.x · Cited by 37 · see citing works
A Strategic Theory
Baechler, J. (1980) · Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior · doi:10.1111/j.1943-278x.1980.tb00768.x · Cited by 37 · see citing works
Suicide and Drug Abuse in the Medical Community
Bressler, B. (1976) · Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior · doi:10.1111/j.1943-278x.1976.tb00330.x · Cited by 37 · see citing works
Self‐Attitudes and Suicidal Behavior
Kaplan, H. B., & Pokorny, A. D. (1976) · Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior · doi:10.1111/j.1943-278x.1976.tb00548.x · Cited by 36 · see citing works
Suicide and Homicide Rates: Their Relationship to Latitude and Longitude and to the Weather
Lester, D. (1986) · Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior · doi:10.1111/j.1943-278x.1986.tb01017.x · Cited by 36 · see citing works
The Risk of Child Abuse among Mothers who Attempt Suicide
Hawton, K. E., Roberts, J., & Goodwin, G. M. (1985) · The British Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1192/bjp.146.5.486 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
Personality characteristics found among youthful female suicide attempters.
Cantor, P. C. (1976) · Journal of Abnormal Psychology · doi:10.1037//0021-843x.85.3.324 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
Suicide Risk Factors In Alcohol Abuse
Motto, J. A. (1980) · Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior · doi:10.1111/j.1943-278x.1980.tb00704.x · Cited by 33 · see citing works
Cognition and Suicide: A Methodological Review
Arffa, S. (1983) · Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior · doi:10.1111/j.1943-278x.1983.tb00009.x · Cited by 33 · see citing works
The Meaning of Attempted Suicide to Young Parasuicides: A Repertory Grid Study
Parker, A. (1981) · The British Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1192/bjp.139.4.306 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
Hostility and Deliberate Self-Poisoning: The Role of Depression
Farmer, R. G. (1987) · The British Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1192/bjp.150.5.609 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
Suicide Potential and Time Perspective
Yufit, R. I. (1970) · Archives of General Psychiatry · doi:10.1001/archpsyc.1970.01750020062008 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Drugs and suicide : when other coping strategies fail
Lettieri, D. J. (1978) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 30 · see citing works
Some Common Characteristics of Latency‐Age Suicidal Children: A Tentative Model Based on Case Study Analyses
Orbach, I., Gross, Y., & Glaubman, H. (1981) · Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior · doi:10.1111/j.1943-278x.1981.tb00783.x · Cited by 30 · see citing works
The Influence of Economic Business Cycles on United States Suicide Rates
Wasserman, I. M. (1984) · Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior · doi:10.1111/j.1943-278x.1984.tb00445.x · Cited by 28 · see citing works
The Course of Depressive Symptoms in Suicidal vs. Nonsuicidal Depressed Inpatients
Overholser, J. C., Miller, I. W., & Norman, W. H. (1987) · The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease · doi:10.1097/00005053-198708000-00002 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
THE PERSONAL FUTURE AND SUICIDAL IDEATION
Melges, F. T., & Weisz, A. E. (1971) · The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease · doi:10.1097/00005053-197110000-00003 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
Banality Reinvestigated: A Computer‐Based Content Analysis of Suicidal and Forced Death Documents*
Henken, V. J. (1976) · Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior · doi:10.1111/j.1943-278x.1976.tb00549.x · Cited by 27 · see citing works
Suicide Related to the Assassination of President John F. Kennedy
Biller, O. A. (1977) · Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior · doi:10.1111/j.1943-278x.1977.tb00888.x · Cited by 25 · see citing works
Suicide and Rurality in Urban Society
Wilkinson, K. P., & Israel, G. D. (1984) · Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior · doi:10.1111/j.1943-278x.1984.tb00448.x · Cited by 24 · see citing works
Family Loss and Hospital Suicide
Conroy, R. W., & Smith, K. (1983) · Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior · doi:10.1111/j.1943-278x.1983.tb00016.x · Cited by 23 · see citing works
The Suicide Rate Among Psychiatrists Revisited
Bergman, J. (1979) · Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior · doi:10.1111/j.1943-278x.1979.tb00440.x · Cited by 23 · see citing works
The Perception of the Passage of Time among Death‐Involved Hospital Patients*
Neuringer, C., & Harris, R. M. (1974) · Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior · doi:10.1111/j.1943-278x.1974.tb00544.x · Cited by 23 · see citing works
Trauer und Melancholie – Mourning and Melancholia
Freud, S. (1917) · Cited by 23 · see citing works
Temporal Orientation in Suicidal Patients
Greaves, G. (1971) · Perceptual and Motor Skills · doi:10.2466/pms.1971.33.3.1020 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Temperament characteristics of suicide attempters.
Mehrabian, A., & Weinstein, L. (1985) · Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-006x.53.4.544 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Risk taking among suicide attempters.
Adams, R. L., Giffen, M. B., & Garfield, F. B. (1973) · Journal of Abnormal Psychology · doi:10.1037/h0035153 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
Suicide Attributed to Work
Brodsky, C. M. (1977) · Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior · doi:10.1111/j.1943-278x.1977.tb00893.x · Cited by 21 · see citing works
Suicidal Behavior as a Form of Communication in Married Couples
Bonnar, J. W., & McGee, R. K. (1977) · Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior · doi:10.1111/j.1943-278x.1977.tb00885.x · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Indirect Self‐Destructive Behavior in Chronic Hemodialysis Patients
Gerber, K. E., Nehemkis, A. M., Farberow, N. L., & Williams, J. (1981) · Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior · doi:10.1111/j.1943-278x.1981.tb00997.x · Cited by 20 · see citing works
The Relation of Delusional Content in Psychotic Depression to Life‐Threatening Behavior
Miller, F. G., & Chabrier, L. A. (1987) · Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior · doi:10.1111/j.1943-278x.1987.tb00058.x · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Suicide Attempts Among Drug Abusers
Harris, R. M., Linn, M. W., & Hunter, K. I. (1979) · Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior · doi:10.1111/j.1943-278x.1979.tb00900.x · Cited by 19 · see citing works
Cheap Thrills and Humble Pie: The Adolescence of Female Suicide Attempters
Stephens, B. J. (1987) · Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior · doi:10.1111/j.1943-278x.1987.tb01024.x · Cited by 19 · see citing works
Psychological Correlates of Unemployment Among Male Parasuicides in Edinburgh
Platt, S. D., & Dyer, J. A. T. (1987) · The British Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1192/bjp.151.1.27 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
Suicide Survivors: Psychotherapeutic Implications of Egocide*
Rosen, D. H. (1976) · Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior · doi:10.1111/j.1943-278x.1976.tb00878.x · Cited by 19 · see citing works
Attributes of Suicide in Females
Bourque, L. B., Kraus, J. F., & Cosand, B. J. (1983) · Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior · doi:10.1111/j.1943-278x.1983.tb00010.x · Cited by 18 · see citing works
The Participation of Females in the Labor Force and Rates of Personal Violence (Suicide and Homicide)
Yang, B., & Lester, D. (1988) · Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior · doi:10.1111/j.1943-278x.1988.tb00163.x · Cited by 18 · see citing works
The Spouses of Attempted Suicides: A Personality Study
Bhagat, M. (1976) · The British Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1192/bjp.128.1.44 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Suicide, Homicide, and the Quality of Life: An Archival Study
Lester, D. (1986) · Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior · doi:10.1111/j.1943-278x.1986.tb01020.x · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Development of Self-Consciousness: At What Age Does Audience Pressure Disrupt Performance?.
Tice, D. M., Buder, J., & Baumeister, R. F. (1985) · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Self-citation
Management of the Repeatedly Suicidal Patient
Ennis, J., Barnes, R., & Spenser, H. R. (1985) · The Canadian Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1177/070674378503000712 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Intropunitiveness in Suicidal Adolescents
Levenson, M., & Neuringer, C. (1970) · Journal of Projective Techniques and Personality Assessment · doi:10.1080/0091651x.1970.10380275 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Suicide attempters ten years later
Weiss, J. M., & Scott, K. F. (1974) · Comprehensive Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/0010-440x(74)90033-9 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
A Serious Suicidal Syndrome Masked by Homicidal Threats
Rhine, M. W., & Mayerson, P. (1973) · Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior · doi:10.1111/j.1943-278x.1973.tb00112.x · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Assessing Suicidal Potential by Time Perspective*
Yufit, R. I., & Benzies, B. J. (1973) · Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior · doi:10.1111/j.1943-278x.1973.tb00122.x · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Suicide and Religion: A Study of White Adults in New York City, 1963-1967
Goss, M. E. W., & Ji, R. (1971) · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Legacy of a Suicide*
Buksbazen, C. (1976) · Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior · doi:10.1111/j.1943-278x.1976.tb00676.x · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Some Social and Psychological Factors Related to Suicide in Primitive Societies: A Cross‐Cultural Comparative Study
Smith, D. H., & Hackathorn, L. (1982) · Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior · doi:10.1111/j.1943-278x.1982.tb00708.x · Cited by 11 · see citing works
A Study of the Personal Meaning of Suicide in the Context of Baechler's Typology
Smith, G. W., & Bloom, I. (1985) · Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior · doi:10.1111/j.1943-278x.1985.tb00784.x · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Suicide thoughts and reflections, 1960-1980 : a special issue of Suicide and life-threatening behavior
Shneidman, E. S. (1981) · Human Sciences Press eBooks · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Relationship between life and death among individuals of varying levels of suicidality.
Neuringer, C. (1979) · Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-006x.47.2.407 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Cognitive and personality factors in suicidal behavior.
Geller, A. M., & Atkins, A. L. (1978) · Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-006x.46.5.860 · Cited by 7 · see citing works

Flagged first, then by citations

2 of the 212 references couldn’t be matched to a known paper.

Sorted by citations

The need to belong: Desire for interpersonal attachments as a fundamental human motivation.
Baumeister, R. F., & Leary, M. R. (1995) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037//0033-2909.117.3.497 · Cited by 23,245 · see citing works
“Indeed, the main criticism that can be leveled against Durkheim's hypothesis is that it is incomplete in the sense that it does not explain everything about suicide (e.g., Baumeister, 1990; Douglas, 1967), but it is correct as far as it goes.”
BackgroundSelf-citation
The interpersonal theory of suicide.
Van Orden, K. A., Witte, T. K., Cukrowicz, K. C., Braithwaite, S. R., Selby, E. A., & Joiner, T. E. (2010) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/a0018697 · Cited by 5,292 · see citing works
“However, the interpersonal theory diverges from previous theories in its proposal that an unmet “need to belong” (Baumeister & Leary, 1995, p. 1) is the specific interpersonal need involved in desire for suicide. The theory also differs in that we propose that thwarted belongingness is a multidimensional construct. Fi…”
BackgroundInfluential
Risk factors for suicidal thoughts and behaviors: A meta-analysis of 50 years of research
Franklin, J. C., Ribeiro, J. D., Fox, K. R., Bentley, K. H., Kleiman, E. M., Huang, X., Musacchio, K. M., Jaroszewski, A. C., Chang, B. P., & Nock, M. K. (2017) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/bul0000084 · Cited by 3,784 · see citing works
“1136/jech-2011200464 Baumeister, R. F. (1990). Suicide as escape from self. Psychological Review, 97, 90–113. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.97.1.90 Baumert, J., Schneider, B., Lukaschek, K., Emeny, R. T., Meisinger, C., Erazo, N., . . . Ladwig, K. H. (2014). Adverse conditions at the workplace are associated wit…”
BackgroundInfluential
Suicide and suicidal behavior
Nock, M. K., Borges, G., Bromet, E. J., Cha, C. B., Kessler, R. C., & Lee, S. (2008) · Epidemiologic Reviews · doi:10.1093/epirev/mxn002 · Cited by 2,897 · see citing works
“Several such risk factors include the presence of hopelessness (83–85), anhedonia (49,86), impulsiveness (70,87–89), and high emotional reactivity (86,87,90), each of which may increase psychological distress to a point that is unbearable and lead a person to seek escape via suicide (88,91–93).”
Background
Experiential avoidance and behavioral disorders: A functional dimensional approach to diagnosis and treatment.
Hayes, S. C., Wilson, K. G., Gifford, E. V., Follette, V. M., & Strosahl, K. (1996) · Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-006x.64.6.1152 · Cited by 3,595 · see citing works
“When the motivational conditions involved in suicide are analyzed, more than half of actual or attempted suicides involve an attempt to flee from aversive events (Loo, 1986; Smith & Bloom, 1985), especially states of mind such as guilt and anxiety (Bancroft, Skrimshire & Simkins, 1976; Baumeister, 1990).”
Background
Binge eating as escape from self-awareness
Heatherton, T. F., & Baumeister, R. F. (1991) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.110.1.86 · Cited by 2,259 · see citing works
“Suicidal behavior is often preceded by just such a period of narrow and rigid cognitive functioning that may well be sought as an escape from a highly aversive view of self brought on by recent setbacks or traumas (Baumeister, 1990b).”
BackgroundInfluentialSelf-citation
Measuring experiential avoidance: A preliminary test of a working model
Hayes, S. C., Strosahl, K., Wilson, K. G., Bissett, R. T., Pistorello, J., Toarmino, D., Polusny, M. A., Dykstra, T. A., Batten, S. V., Bergan, J., et al. (2004) · The Psychological Record · doi:10.1007/bf03395492 · Cited by 2,140 · see citing works
The Three-Step Theory (3ST): A New Theory of Suicide Rooted in the “Ideation-to-Action” Framework
Klonsky, E. D., & May, A. M. (2015) · International Journal of Cognitive Therapy · doi:10.1521/ijct.2015.8.2.114 · Cited by 1,799 · see citing works
Guilt: An interpersonal approach
Baumeister, R. F., Stillwell, A. M., & Heatherton, T. F. (1994) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.115.2.243 · Cited by 1,884 · see citing works
“Human beings experience anxiety at the threat of separation or exclusion from their mothers (Bowlby, 1969, 1973) or, indeed, from significant others in general (Baumeister & Tice, 1990).”
BackgroundSelf-citation
Suicide, Suicide Attempts, and Suicidal Ideation
Klonsky, E. D., May, A. M., & Saffer, B. Y. (2016) · Annual Review of Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-021815-093204 · Cited by 1,675 · see citing works
The integrated motivational–volitional model of suicidal behaviour
O'Connor, R. C., & Kirtley, O. J. (2018) · Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences · doi:10.1098/rstb.2017.0268 · Cited by 1,559 · see citing works
Social exclusion impairs self-regulation
Baumeister, R. F., DeWall, C. N., Ciarocco, N. J., & Twenge, J. M. (2005) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.88.4.589 · Cited by 1,401 · see citing works
“When events reflect badly on the self, people may seek to avoid or escape self-awareness (for example, Baumeister, 1990, 1991; Greenberg & Musham, 1981; Heatherton & Baumeister, 1991).”
BackgroundSelf-citation
The Costly Pursuit of Self-Esteem
Crocker, J., & Park, L. E. (2004) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.130.3.392 · Cited by 1,402 · see citing works
“People may escape the self by consuming alcohol (Hull, 1981), binge eating (Heatherton & Baumeister, 1991), masochism (Baumeister, 1991), and even suicide (Baumeister, 1990).”
Background
Emotion Regulation and Psychopathology
Sheppes, G., Suri, G., & Gross, J. J. (2015) · Annual Review of Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-032814-112739 · Cited by 1,214 · see citing works
“F or p er so na l u se o nl y. influential account that has direct bearings on underrepresentation of general regulatory mechanisms is escape theory, which has been utilized to explain suicidal behavior (Baumeister 1990) and binge eating (Heatherton & Baumeister 1991).”
Background
The psychology of suicidal behaviour
O'Connor, R. C., & Nock, M. K. (2014) · The Lancet Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/s2215-0366(14)70222-6 · Cited by 1,193 · see citing works
Solving the puzzle of deliberate self-harm: The experiential avoidance model
Chapman, A. L., Gratz, K. L., & Brown, M. Z. (2006) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.brat.2005.03.005 · Cited by 1,475 · see citing works
“Similar to Baumeister’s (1990) escape theory of suicide, individuals who engage in DSH may experience a breakdown in their cognitive or information processing systems under conditions of intense emotional arousal.”
Background
Contingencies of self-worth.
Crocker, J., & Wolfe, C. T. (2001) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.108.3.593 · Cited by 1,614 · see citing works
Mental disorders, comorbidity and suicidal behavior: Results from the National Comorbidity Survey Replication
Nock, M. K., Hwang, I., Sampson, N. A., & Kessler, R. C. (2010) · Molecular Psychiatry · doi:10.1038/mp.2009.29 · Cited by 1,125 · see citing works
“Such an interpretation is consistent with an escape model of suicide, which suggests that people attempt suicide in an effort to escape intolerable distress regardless of the specific source of that distress.(39,40) Such a model also may help explain the strong dose-response relationship observed between number of dis…”
Result
An Integrated Review of Indirect, Relational, and Social Aggression
Archer, J., & Coyne, S. (2005) · Personality and Social Psychology Review · doi:10.1207/s15327957pspr0903_2 · Cited by 1,162 · see citing works
“This finding was explained in terms of social exclusion producing a state of cognitive deconstruction, marked by flat affect, and similar to that found in the presuicidal state (Baumeister, 1990).”
BackgroundResultInfluential
Suicidal desire and the capability for suicide: Tests of the interpersonal-psychological theory of suicidal behavior among adults.
Van Orden, K. A., Witte, T. K., Gordon, K. H., Bender, T. W., & Joiner, T. E. (2008) · Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-006x.76.1.72 · Cited by 1,126 · see citing works
“Future research could also address the hypotheses that other predictors of suicide, including mental pain (Shneidman, 1985), aversive self-awareness (Baumeister, 1990), and hopelessness (Cornette, Abramson, & Bardone, 2000), are related to suicidal desire through their relationships with thwarted belongingness and per…”
Background
Self-esteem in a broad-spectrum approach for mental health promotion
Mann, M. (2004) · Health Education Research · doi:10.1093/her/cyg041 · Cited by 1,096 · see citing works
“There appears to be a pathway from not living up to personal standards, to low selfesteem and to being depressed (Harter, 1986, 1990; Higgins, 1987, 1989; Baumeister, 1990).”
Background
CURRENT RESEARCH IN SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY
Markovsky, B. (1996) · Cited by 994 · see citing works
The role of defeat and entrapment (arrested flight) in depression: an exploration of an evolutionary view
GILBERT, P., & ALLAN, S. (1998) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s0033291798006710 · Cited by 972 · see citing works
“Although the concepts of entrapment and defeat are not new (Baumeister, 1990) and have been linked to both animal and human models of psychopathology for some time (Price, 1972; Henry, 1982; Gilbert, 1989, 1992; Dixon et al.”
BackgroundInfluential
Cross-National Analysis of the Associations among Mental Disorders and Suicidal Behavior: Findings from the WHO World Mental Health Surveys
Nock, M. K., Hwang, I., Sampson, N., Kessler, R. C., Angermeyer, M., Beautrais, A., Borges, G., Bromet, E., Bruffaerts, R., de Girolamo, G., et al. (2009) · PLoS Medicine · doi:10.1371/journal.pmed.1000123 · Cited by 912 · see citing works
“One possibility that has been suggested in the literature is that high comorbidity creates an especially intolerable situation from which people attempt to escape via suicide [48,49].”
Background
The destructiveness of perfectionism: Implications for the treatment of depression.
Blatt, S. J. (1995) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037//0003-066x.50.12.1003 · Cited by 925 · see citing works
Chapter 6 Ostracism
Williams, K. D. (2009) · Advances in experimental social psychology · doi:10.1016/s0065-2601(08)00406-1 · Cited by 1,339 · see citing works
Is depression an adaptation?
Nesse, R. M. (2000) · Archives of General Psychiatry · doi:10.1001/archpsyc.57.1.14 · Cited by 891 · see citing works
“When current life plans are not working, the distress and lack of motivation that characterize depression may motivate planning and reassessment(49) or escape, even by suicide.(50) Hamburg summarized possible functions of depression, saying,”
Background
Causes and Consequences of Low Self-Esteem in Children and Adolescents
Harter, S. (1993) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4684-8956-9_5 · Cited by 861 · see citing works
Point-Counterpoints: Anxiety and Social Exclusion
Baumeister, R. F., & Tice, D. M. (1990) · Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1521/jscp.1990.9.2.165 · Cited by 743 · see citing works
Self-citation
Differentiating suicide attempters from suicide ideators: a critical frontier for suicidology research
Klonsky, E. D., & May, A. M. (2014) · Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior · doi:10.1111/sltb.12068 · Cited by 740 · see citing works
“For example, major theories have emphasized the roles of psychache (Shneidman, 1993), escape (Baumeister, 1990), and social isolation (Durkheim, 1951) without specifying whether these factors explain suicide ideation, attempts, or both.”
Background
Defining Lives: Occupation as Identity: An Essay on Competence, Coherence, and the Creation of Meaning
Christiansen, C. H. (1999) · American Journal of Occupational Therapy · doi:10.5014/ajot.53.6.547 · Cited by 712 · see citing works
The destructiveness of perfectionism: implications for the treatment of depression.
Blatt, S. J. (1995) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/0003-066x.50.12.1003 · Cited by 926 · see citing works
Discovering Shifts to Suicidal Ideation from Mental Health Content in Social Media
Choudhury, M. D., Kıcıman, E., Dredze, M. H., Coppersmith, G., & Kumar, M. (2016) · CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems · doi:10.1145/2858036.2858207 · Cited by 682 · see citing works
“A central challenge in public health revolves around how to identify individuals who are at risk for taking their own lives [3, 8, 66].”
Suicidality in chronic pain: a review of the prevalence, risk factors and psychological links
TANG, N. K. Y., & CRANE, C. (2006) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s0033291705006859 · Cited by 639 · see citing works
“…repeatedly been suggested that both suicide and suicidal behaviour can be viewed in terms of an attempt to escape from aversive self-consciousness (Baumeister, 1990), unbearable ‘psychache’ (Shneidman, 1997) or intolerable situations in which the opportunity to escape or to receive relief are…”
Background
Personality traits as correlates of suicidal ideation, suicide attempts, and suicide completions: a systematic review
Brezo, J., Paris, J., & Turecki, G. (2006) · Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica · doi:10.1111/j.1600-0447.2005.00702.x · Cited by 605 · see citing works
“First, they affect variables that may contribute to diathesis for suicide, namely our perception of and adaptations to the environment and self (51, 82, 44).”
Background
Emotion regulation and aggression
Roberton, T., Daffern, M., & Bucks, R. S. (2011) · Aggression and Violent Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.avb.2011.09.006 · Cited by 599 · see citing works
“Twenge, Baumeister, Tice, and Stucke (2001), for example, found that participants who experienced social exclusion (receiving”
BackgroundInfluential
Physiological arousal, distress tolerance, and social problem-solving deficits among adolescent self-injurers
Nock, M. K., & Mendes, W. B. (2008) · Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-006x.76.1.28 · Cited by 572 · see citing works
“Suicidal and nonsuicidal self-injury have long been proposed to function as a means of escape from intolerable emotional states (e.g., Baumeister, 1990; Favazza, 1996), and treatments for selfinjurers have included components that teach patients how to better tolerate distress (Linehan et al.,…”
Background
Towards an integrated motivational–volitional model of suicidal behaviour
O'connor, R. C. (2011) · International Handbook of Suicide Prevention · doi:10.1002/9781119998556.ch11 · Cited by 552 · see citing works
The Compensatory Consumer Behavior Model: How self‐discrepancies drive consumer behavior
Mandel, N., Rucker, D. D., Levav, J., & Galinsky, A. D. (2017) · Journal of Consumer Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jcps.2016.05.003 · Cited by 564 · see citing works
“In addition, because humans have a strong need to establish and maintain social relationships (Baumeister & Leary, 1995), self-discrepancies can occur when individuals feel socially excluded with regard to an important referent group. Several studies show that when self-discrepancies arise in terms of one's affiliatio…”
Influential
The bright side of being blue: depression as an adaptation for analyzing complex problems.
Andrews, P. W., & Thomson, J. A. (2009) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/a0016242 · Cited by 549 · see citing works
Alone but feeling no pain: Effects of social exclusion on physical pain tolerance and pain threshold, affective forecasting, and interpersonal empathy.
DeWall, C. N., & Baumeister, R. F. (2006) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.91.1.1 · Cited by 529 · see citing works
“The deconstructed state has been used previously to describe presuicidal tendencies (Baumeister, 1990), and it is marked by emotional numbness, an altered perception of time, thoughts of meaninglessness, lethargy, and avoidance of self-focused attention.”
MethodSelf-citation
The Suicidal Ideation Attributes Scale ( <scp>SIDAS</scp> ): Community‐Based Validation Study of a New Scale for the Measurement of Suicidal Ideation
van Spijker, B. A. J., Batterham, P. J., Calear, A. L., Farrer, L., Christensen, H., Reynolds, J., & Kerkhof, A. J. F. M. (2014) · Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior · doi:10.1111/sltb.12084 · Cited by 492 · see citing works
“In addition, the suggestion that people attempt suicide to escape intolerable distress (Baumeister, 1990; Nock, Hwang, Sampson, & Kessler, 2010) led us to hypothesize that levels of distress would be more closely linked to behavior than the frequency and controllability attributes.”
Background
The specificity of autobiographical memory and imageability of the future
Williams, J. M. G., Ellis, N. C., Tyers, C., Healy, H., Rose, G., & Macleod, A. K. (1996) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/bf03197278 · Cited by 526 · see citing works
Social Exclusion and the Deconstructed State: Time Perception, Meaninglessness, Lethargy, Lack of Emotion, and Self-Awareness.
Twenge, J. M., Catanese, K. R., & Baumeister, R. F. (2003) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.85.3.409 · Cited by 715 · see citing works
“The deconstructed state includes escape from emotional distress, but the emotional distress itself stems from self-awareness in connection with recent failures or setbacks (Baumeister, 1990, 1991).”
BackgroundInfluentialSelf-citation
A review of theories and models applied in studies of social media addiction and implications for future research
Sun, Y., & Zhang, Y. (2021) · Addictive Behaviors · doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2020.106699 · Cited by 509 · see citing works
Social exclusion causes self-defeating behavior.
Twenge, J. M., Catanese, K. R., & Baumeister, R. F. (2002) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.83.3.606 · Cited by 503 · see citing works
“Baumeister (1990) proposed that the numbness reflects a cognitive strategy to”
BackgroundInfluentialSelf-citation
Predicting therapy duration from therapist experience and client psychopathology
Renk, K., Dinger, T. M., & Bjugstad, K. B. (2000) · Journal of Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1002/1097-4679(200012)56:12 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
A cognitive model of suicidal behavior: theory and treatment
Wenzel, A., & Beck, A. T. (2008) · Applied and Preventive Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.appsy.2008.05.001 · Cited by 491 · see citing works
The relation between perfectionism and distress: Hassles, coping, and perceived social support as mediators and moderators.
Dunkley, D. M., Blankstein, K. R., Halsall, J., Williams, M., & Winkworth, G. (2000) · Journal of Counseling Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-0167.47.4.437 · Cited by 455 · see citing works
Cascades of Emotion: The Emergence of Borderline Personality Disorder from Emotional and Behavioral Dysregulation
Selby, E. A., & Joiner, T. E. (2009) · Review of General Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0015687 · Cited by 452 · see citing works
“Baumeister, R. F. (1990). Suicide as escape from self. Psychological Review, 97, 90–113. Briere, J., & Gil, E. (1998). Self-mutilation in clinical and general population samples: Prevalence, correlates, and functions. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 68, 609–620. Broderick, P. C. (2005). Mindfulness and coping wit…”
BackgroundInfluential
Excluded from humanity: The dehumanizing effects of social ostracism
Bastian, B., & Haslam, N. (2010) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2009.06.022 · Cited by 441 · see citing works
“The same form of dehumanization is implied by research on the experiential impact of social ostracism, which refers to ‘‘cognitive deconstructive” states (Twenge, Catanese, & Baumeister, 2003) that involve emotional numbing, reduced empathy, cognitive inflexibility, lethargy, and an absence of meaningful thought. Baum…”
Background
The Interpersonal Theory of Suicide: Guidance for Working with Suicidal Clients
Joiner, T. E., Orden, K. V. V., Witte, T., & Rudd, M. (2009) · American Psychological Association eBooks · doi:10.1037/11869-000 · Cited by 417 · see citing works
Increased impulsivity associated with severity of suicide attempt history in patients with bipolar disorder
Swann, A. C., Dougherty, D. M., Pazzaglia, P. J., Pham, M., Steinberg, J. L., & Moeller, F. G. (2005) · American Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.162.9.1680 · Cited by 439 · see citing works
“These findings are consistent with models for suicidal behavior that require some disinhibitory factor even in predominantly premeditated attempts, suggesting that impulsivity increases risk when combined with depression (7, 49, 50).”
Result
Freudian Defense Mechanisms and Empirical Findings in Modern Social Psychology: Reaction Formation, Projection, Displacement, Undoing, Isolation, Sublimation, and Denial
Baumeister, R. F., Dale, K. L., & Sommer, K. L. (1998) · Journal of Personality · doi:10.1111/1467-6494.00043 · Cited by 434 · see citing works
Self-citation
Anxiety and its disorders as risk factors for suicidal thoughts and behaviors: A meta-analytic review
Bentley, K. H., Franklin, J. C., Ribeiro, J. D., Kleiman, E. M., Fox, K. R., & Nock, M. K. (2016) · Clinical Psychology Review · doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2015.11.008 · Cited by 422 · see citing works
“Suicidal thoughts and behaviors have similarly been conceptualized as avoidant or escape-based responses to the experience of strong emotions (Baumeister, 1990; Boergers, Spirito, & Donaldson, 1998; Briere, Hodges, & Godbout, 2010; Bryan, Rudd, & Wertenberger, 2013; Shneidman, 1993), highlighting the potential functio…”
BackgroundResultInfluential
The role of defeat and entrapment in depression, anxiety, and suicide.
Taylor, P. J., Gooding, P. A., Wood, A. M., & Tarrier, N. (2011) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/a0022935 · Cited by 418 · see citing works
“Likewise, several theoretical accounts of suicidal behavior have emphasized the desire to escape as a central impetus (e.g., Baumeister, 1990; Johnson et al., 2008; Shneidman, 1996).”
Background
Resilience to suicidality: The buffering hypothesis
Johnson, J., Wood, A. M., Gooding, P. A., Taylor, P. J., & Tarrier, N. (2011) · Clinical Psychology Review · doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2010.12.007 · Cited by 425 · see citing works
“…stable and global has been linked to depressive symptomatology (Luten, Ralph, & Mineka, 1997; Metalsky, Abramson, Seligman, Semmel, & Peterson, 1982), and theorists have suggested it may have a key role in the aetiology of suicidal behaviors (Abramson, Metalsky, & Alloy, 1989; Baumeister, 1990).”
Background
Abstract versus concrete goals: Personal striving level, physical illness, and psychological well-being.
Emmons, R. A. (1992) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.62.2.292 · Cited by 411 · see citing works
Correlates of suicide attempts among self-injurers: a meta-analysis
Victor, S. E., & Klonsky, E. D. (2014) · Clinical Psychology Review · doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2014.03.005 · Cited by 390 · see citing works
Gratitude and grit indirectly reduce risk of suicidal ideations by enhancing meaning in life: Evidence for a mediated moderation model
Kleiman, E. M., Adams, L., Kashdan, T., & Riskind, J. (2013) · Journal of Research in Personality · doi:10.1016/j.jrp.2013.04.007 · Cited by 385 · see citing works
“Second, compatible with theories of suicide risk (Baumeister, 1990,1991), grit allows individuals to create and sustain life goals that are a primary source of meaning and purpose in life. Baumeister’s (1990) escape theory of suicide states that suicide arises from a desire to escape the negative emotions created by s…”
BackgroundMethodInfluential
Alcohol and suicidal behavior
Hufford, M. R. (2001) · Clinical Psychology Review · doi:10.1016/s0272-7358(00)00070-2 · Cited by 380 · see citing works
Suicide Among Soldiers: A Review of Psychosocial Risk and Protective Factors
Nock, M. K., Deming, C. A., Fullerton, C. S., Gilman, S. E., Goldenberg, M., Kessler, R. C., McCarroll, J. E., McLaughlin, K. A., Peterson, C., Schoenbaum, M., et al. (2013) · Psychiatry · doi:10.1521/psyc.2013.76.2.97 · Cited by 364 · see citing works
“, Beautrais, A., . . . Williams, D. R. (2009). Cross-national analysis of the associations among mental disorders and suicidal behavior: Findings from the WHO World Mental Health Surveys.”
Background
THE MOTIVATIONAL IMPACT OF TEMPORAL FOCUS: Thinking About the Future and the Past
Karniol, R., & Ross, M. (1996) · Annual Review of Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.47.1.593 · Cited by 358 · see citing works
Development and preliminary validation of a scale of psychache
Holden, R. R., Mehta, K., Cunningham, E. J., & McLeod, L. D. (2001) · Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science / Revue canadienne des sciences du comportement · doi:10.1037/h0087144 · Cited by 354 · see citing works
Materialism and Diminished Well–Being: Experiential Avoidance as a Mediating Mechanism
Kashdan, T. B., & Breen, W. E. (2007) · Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1521/jscp.2007.26.5.521 · Cited by 348 · see citing works
“Experiential avoidance is conceptually related to Baumeister’s (1990) model of self avoidance (i.”
Background
Cognitive distortions in sex offenders: An integrative review
Ward, T. J. (1997) · Clinical Psychology Review · doi:10.1016/s0272-7358(97)81034-3 · Cited by 339 · see citing works
Childhood physical and sexual abuse and lifetime number of suicide attempts: A persistent and theoretically important relationship
Joiner, T. E., Sachs‐Ericsson, N., Wingate, L. R., Brown, J. S., Anestis, M. D., & Selby, E. A. (2006) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.brat.2006.04.007 · Cited by 335 · see citing works
“This theory is compatible with and adds to other prominent models of suicidality (e.g., Baumeister, 1990; Beck, 1996; Linehan, 1993).”
Result
Suicidality, School Dropout, and Reading Problems Among Adolescents
Daniel, S. S., Walsh, A., Goldston, D. B., Arnold, E. M., Reboussin, B. A., & Wood, F. (2006) · Journal of Learning Disabilities · doi:10.1177/00222194060390060301 · Cited by 336 · see citing works
“The relationship between poor single word reading ability, school dropout, and suicidality is consistent with the implications of escape theory (Baumeister, 1990).”
Result
Purpose in Life, Satisfaction with Life, and Suicide Ideation in a Clinical Sample
Heisel, M. J., & Flett, G. L. (2004) · Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment · doi:10.1023/b:joba.0000013660.22413.e0 · Cited by 324 · see citing works
A meta-analysis of neuropsychological markers of vulnerability to suicidal behavior in mood disorders
Richard-Devantoy, S., Berlim, M. T., & Jollant, F. (2014) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s0033291713002304 · Cited by 324 · see citing works
“The link with the ‘escape from self’ theory of suicide is less obvious (Baumeister, 1990).”
Background
Experiencing Dehumanization: Cognitive and Emotional Effects of Everyday Dehumanization
Bastian, B., & Haslam, N. (2011) · Basic and Applied Social Psychology · doi:10.1080/01973533.2011.614132 · Cited by 269 · see citing works
“These states represent a defense against the emotional distress and aversive self-awareness that follows social exclusion (Baumeister, 1990) and have also been noted by Williams (2001), who found that people respond to ostracism with numbness and a narrowly concrete focus on the immediate present.”
Background
Reconsidering the link between impulsivity and suicidal behavior
Anestis, M. D., Soberay, K. A., Gutierrez, P. M., Hernández, T. D., & Joiner, T. E. (2014) · Personality and Social Psychology Review · doi:10.1177/1088868314535988 · Cited by 307 · see citing works
“Relatedly, Baumeister (1990) proposed that suicide attempts represent an escape from aversive self-awareness and that individuals develop a diminished ability to resist impulses to engage in suicidal behavior while experiencing such a state and, as a result, become increasingly at risk for engaging…”
BackgroundInfluential
Adolescent suicide: Assessment and intervention.
Berman, A. L., & Jobes, D. A. (1991) · American Psychological Association eBooks · doi:10.1037/10079-000 · Cited by 310 · see citing works
Self‐Awareness Part 1: Definition, Measures, Effects, Functions, and Antecedents
Morin, A. (2011) · Social and Personality Psychology Compass · doi:10.1111/j.1751-9004.2011.00387.x · Cited by 326 · see citing works
“People also escape the self by drinking alcohol, taking drugs, overeating, engaging in extreme sexual behavior, and ultimately committing suicide (Baumeister, 1990, 1991; Hull, 1981).”
Background
Reward Signals, Attempted Suicide, and Impulsivity in Late-Life Depression
Dombrovski, A. Y., Szanto, K., Clark, L., Reynolds, C. F., & Siegle, G. J. (2013) · JAMA Psychiatry · doi:10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2013.75 · Cited by 289 · see citing works
Laboratory behavioral measures of impulsivity
Dougherty, D. M., Mathias, C. W., Marsh, D. M., & Jagar, A. A. (2005) · Behavior Research Methods · doi:10.3758/bf03206401 · Cited by 286 · see citing works
“Impulsivity and aggression are closely linked behaviors (Barratt, Stanford, Kent, & Felthous, 1997), and impulsivity is an important component of theories explaining suicidal behavior (e.g., Baechler, 1980; Baumeister, 1990).”
Background
Associations among adolescent risk behaviours and self-esteem in six domains
Wild, L. G., Flisher, A. J., Bhana, A., & Lombard, C. J. (2004) · Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry · doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2004.00851.x · Cited by 286 · see citing works
“…may turn to risk behaviours such as substance abuse as a way to cope with or escape from the negative feelings associated with low self-worth (Baumeister, 1990; Jessor, Van den Bos, Vanderryn, Costa, & Turbin, 1995), because these are the only means available to them to deal with stress…”
Background
Family risk factors for child and adolescent suicidal behavior.
Wagner, B. M. (1997) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.121.2.246 · Cited by 282 · see citing works
The cultural theory and model of suicide
Chu, J. P., Goldblum, P., Floyd, R., & Bongar, B. (2010) · Applied and Preventive Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.appsy.2011.11.001 · Cited by 279 · see citing works
Anhedonia is associated with suicidal ideation independently of depression: A meta-analysis
Ducasse, D., Loas, G., Dassa, D., Gramaglia, C. M., Zeppegno, P., Guillaume, S., Olié, É., & Courtet, P. (2017) · Depression and Anxiety · doi:10.1002/da.22709 · Cited by 270 · see citing works
Chapter 6 Ostracism: A Temporal Need‐Threat Model
Williams, K. D. (2009) · Advances in experimental social psychology · Cited by 270 · see citing works
The Collaborative Assessment and Management of Suicidality (CAMS): An Evolving Evidence‐Based Clinical Approach to Suicidal Risk
Jobes, D. A. (2012) · Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior · doi:10.1111/j.1943-278x.2012.00119.x · Cited by 264 · see citing works
Esteem Threat, Self-Regulatory Breakdown, and Emotional Distress as Factors in Self-Defeating Behavior
Baumeister, R. F. (1997) · Review of General Psychology · doi:10.1037/1089-2680.1.2.145 · Cited by 268 · see citing works
“…the lifespan from suicides among children who feel unable to meet their parents' expectations, to aging men ESTEEM THREAT, SELF-REGULATION, AND SELF-DEFEAT 151 and women who believe that they can no longer live up to the inflated images that others have of them (see Baumeister, 1990, for a review).”
BackgroundInfluentialSelf-citation
THE ASSOCIATION BETWEEN ANXIETY DISORDERS AND SUICIDAL BEHAVIORS: A SYSTEMATIC REVIEW AND META-ANALYSIS
Kanwar, A., Malik, S., Prokop, L. J., Sim, L. A., Feldstein, D., Wang, Z., & Murad, M. H. (2013) · Depression and Anxiety · doi:10.1002/da.22074 · Cited by 263 · see citing works
“In fact, suicidal behavior has been thought of as an escape from aversive self-awareness and negative emotion,[66] or as relief from negative affect.”
Background
Mental Pain: A Multidimensional Operationalization and Definition
Orbach, I., Mikulincer, M., Sirota, P., & Gilboa‐Schechtman, E. (2003) · Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior · doi:10.1521/suli.33.3.219.23219 · Cited by 257 · see citing works
The Effects of Escape from Self and Interpersonal Relationship on the Pathological Use of Internet Games
Kwon, J., Chung, C.-S., & Lee, J. (2009) · Community Mental Health Journal · doi:10.1007/s10597-009-9236-1 · Cited by 258 · see citing works
“Suicide, like other self-destructive behaviors, can be seen as a way to escape from painful reality ( Baumeister 1990 ).”
Background
The perniciousness of perfectionism: A meta‐analytic review of the perfectionism–suicide relationship
Smith, M. M., Sherry, S. B., Chen, S., Saklofske, D. H., Mushquash, C., Flett, G. L., & Hewitt, P. L. (2018) · Journal of Personality · doi:10.1111/jopy.12333 · Cited by 255 · see citing works
“Five years earlier, Baumeister (1990) also sounded the same alarm with his escape theory of suicide.”
BackgroundInfluential
The Mediating Effect of Gaming Motivation Between Psychiatric Symptoms and Problematic Online Gaming: An Online Survey
Király, O., Urbán, R., Griffiths, M. D., Ágoston, C., Nagygyörgy, K., Kökönyei, G., & Demetrovics, Z. (2015) · Journal of Medical Internet Research · doi:10.2196/jmir.3515 · Cited by 258 · see citing works
“Kwon and colleagues [14] suggested that adolescents become addicted to online games in an attempt to escape from self and reality based on Baumeister’s [15] escape theory.”
Background
The Big Five personality traits, material values, and financial well-being of self-described money managers
Donnelly, G. E., Iyer, R., & Howell, R. T. (2012) · Journal of Economic Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.joep.2012.08.001 · Cited by 253 · see citing works
Emotional Attachments in Abusive Relationships: A Test of Traumatic Bonding Theory
Dutton, D. G., & Painter, S. (1993) · Violence and Victims · doi:10.1891/0886-6708.8.2.105 · Cited by 254 · see citing works
“The foreshortened future and other aspects of the woman's attachment-derived thinking are similar to the descriptions of "deconstructed thinking" described by Baumeister (1990) in his description of pre-self-destructive thinking.”
Involvement in Bullying and Suicide-Related Behavior at 11 Years: A Prospective Birth Cohort Study
Winsper, C., Lereya, S. T., Zanarini, M. C., & Dieter Wolke, C. (2012) · Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.jaac.2012.01.001 · Cited by 248 · see citing works
Adolescent Suicide as a Failure of Acute Stress-Response Systems.
Miller, A. B., & Prinstein, M. J. (2019) · Annual Review of Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-050718-095625 · Cited by 235 · see citing works
“Linehan (1993) highlighted the role of emotional dysregulation preceding suicide, and both Baumeister (1990) and Beck (1987) posited that increasingly distorted thinking leads an individual to view destructive behaviors as a reasonable option for dealing with intolerable distress.”
Background
Nonsuicidal Self-Injury, Suicidal Behavior, and Their Co-occurrence as Viewed Through the Lens of the Interpersonal Theory of Suicide
Joiner, T. E., Ribeiro, J. D., & Silva, C. (2012) · Current Directions in Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/0963721412454873 · Cited by 236 · see citing works
“Baumeister (1990) proposed that a marked sense of inferiority triggers the desire to escape from self-awareness and related aversive emotions.”
Background
Self-esteem reactions to social interactions: Evidence for sociometer mechanisms across days, people, and nations
Denissen, J. J. A., Penke, L., Schmitt, D. P., & van Aken, M. A. G. (2008) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.95.1.181 · Cited by 234 · see citing works
“According to Baumeister and Leary (1995), people’s need to belong is satisfied by regular interactions within relationships that are characterized by both stability and affective concerns, suggesting that the sociometer should be most active in stable, close relationships.”
Influential
Perfectionism, control, and components of performance anxiety in professional artists
Mor, S., Day, H., Flett, G. L., & Hewitt, P. L. (1995) · Cognitive Therapy and Research · doi:10.1007/bf02229695 · Cited by 241 · see citing works
“Indeed, self-regulation theorists ( Baumeister, 1990; Kanfer & Hagerman, 1981) and self-efficacy theorists (Bandura, 1986, 1989) have predicted that the link between high standards and affective reactions such as anxiety and stress depends on the presence or absence of certain moderating factors.”
Background
Components of hopelessness about the future in parasuicide
MacLeod, A. K., Rose, G. S., & Williams, J. M. G. (1993) · Cognitive Therapy and Research · doi:10.1007/bf01173056 · Cited by 219 · see citing works
Thought suppression and self-injurious thoughts and behaviors
Najmi, S., Wegner, D. M., & Nock, M. K. (2006) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.brat.2006.09.014 · Cited by 218 · see citing works
“For instance, Baumeister (1990) has proposed that when one's sense of self is markedly inferior to held * Correspondence to: Matthew K. Nock, Ph.D. Department of Psychology Harvard University 33 Kirkland Street, 1280 Cambridge, MA 02138 Ph: 617−496−4484 Fax: 617−496−9462 E-mail:…”
Background
Evolutionary Approaches to Psychopathology: The Role of Natural Defences
Gilbert, P. (2001) · Australian & New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1046/j.1440-1614.2001.00856.x · Cited by 218 · see citing works
“Ruminating on our sense of defeat or inferiority can act like a signal of down-rank attack to which we feel increasingly inferior and defeated [60].”
Background
The Social Roots of Suicide: Theorizing How the External Social World Matters to Suicide and Suicide Prevention
Mueller, A. S., Abrutyn, S., Pescosolido, B., & Diefendorf, S. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.621569 · Cited by 216 · see citing works
“Though Baumeister (1990) has argued, suicide is very often about escape from pain, like other Durkheimian types, fatalistic suicides refer to a class of suicides that are not limited by specific individual motives.”
Background
Identity, Self-Concept, and Self-Esteem
Baumeister, R. F. (1997) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-012134645-4/50027-5 · Cited by 211 · see citing works
Self-citation

Authors: Baumeister, R. F.
Affiliations: Case Western Reserve University (US)
Corresponding author: Baumeister, Roy F.
ORCID: Baumeister, Roy F.
Venue: Psychological Review
Publisher: American Psychological Association (APA)
Published: 1990
Volume: 97
Issue: 1
Pages: 90-113
ISSN: 0033-295X (ISSN-L)
1939-1471
DOI: 10.1037/0033-295x.97.1.90
OpenAlex: W2098559214
Cited by: 1,919
References: 212
Citations by year: 2026: 91 · 2025: 137 · 2024: 129 · 2023: 116 · 2022: 100 · 2021: 88 · 2020: 105 · 2019: 88 · 2018: 89 · 2017: 95 · 2016: 78 · 2015: 92 · 2014: 85 · 2013: 81 · 2012: 67
FWCI: 13.21
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: Psychological Review (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Topics: Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Suicide and Self-Harm Studies
Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Death Anxiety and Social Exclusion
Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Psychological Treatments and Disorders
Keywords: suicide, self-awareness, negative affect, internal attribution, self-justification, disinhibition, irrationality, meaning, temporal focus, concrete thinking, cognitive rigidity
MeSH terms: Depressive Disorder, Escape Reaction, Humans, Self Concept, Suicide, Suicide, Attempted

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Suicide as escape from self.

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