Promoting and protecting mental health as flourishing: A complementary strategy for improving national mental health.
Abstract
This article summarizes the conception and diagnosis of the mental health continuum, the findings supporting the two continua model of mental health and illness, and the benefits of flourishing to individuals and society. Completely mentally healthy adults--individuals free of a 12-month mental disorder and flourishing--reported the fewest missed days of work, the fewest half-day or greater work cutbacks, the healthiest psychosocial functioning (i.e., low helplessness, clear goals in life, high resilience, and high intimacy), the lowest risk of cardiovascular disease, the lowest number of chronic physical diseases with age, the fewest health limitations of activities of daily living, and lower health care utilization. However, the prevalence of flourishing is barely 20% in the adult population, indicating the need for a national program on mental health promotion to complement ongoing efforts to prevent and treat mental illness. Findings reveal a Black advantage in mental health as flourishing and no gender disparity in flourishing among Whites.
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Well-being encompasses more than the mere absence of mental illness.
“Increasing evidence demonstrates that mental health or well-being is more than just the absence of mental illness (e.g., Keyes, 2007)”
From Trajectories of change in well-being during cognitive behavioral therapies for anxiety disorders: Quantifying the impact and covariation with improvements in anxiety (2020) · cites this paper as Keyes, 2007
These three well-being domains can enrich understanding of mental and physical health.
“Given the findings that subjective, psychological, and social well-being can contribute to a more complete understanding of mental and physical health (Keyes, 2007)”
From Trajectories of change in well-being during cognitive behavioral therapies for anxiety disorders: Quantifying the impact and covariation with improvements in anxiety (2020) · cites this paper as Keyes, 2007
Mental health is more than just the absence of mental illness.
“Given the increasing evidence that mental health is more than just the absence of mental illness (Keyes, 2005, 2007)”
From Trajectories of change in well-being during cognitive behavioral therapies for anxiety disorders: Quantifying the impact and covariation with improvements in anxiety (2020) · cites this paper as Keyes, 2007
Psychological well-being is not the absence of ill-being.
“Often overlooked is the fact that psychological well-being is not the absence of ill-being (Diener 2000; Keyes 2007).”
From The role of passion in sustainable psychological well-being (2012) · cites this paper as Keyes 2007
Absence of mental health problems (languishing) is not similar to good mental health (flourishing), and mental health should be seen as a continuum.
“According to Keyes absence of mental health problems (i.e. languishing) is not similar to good mental health (i.e. flourishing) and mental health should be seen as a continuum”
From Impact of organized activities on mental health in children and adolescents: An umbrella review (2022) · cites this paper as Keyes, 2007
University teachers felt that their professional activity and the quality of their teaching were affected, and they felt less involvement and flourishing.
“Thus, university teachers felt that their professional activity and the quality of their teaching were affected (e.g., when they established a more distant relationship with students, had less ability to prepare classes or lacked mastery in the use of technological tools), and they felt less involvement and flourishing [41, 42].”
From Boundary violations and university teachers' well-being during mandatory telework: Recovery's role and gender differences (2024) · cites this paper as [42]
Health and mental illness work in a relatively independent manner.
“it has previously been established that health and mental illness work in a relatively independent manner [153]”
From Well-Being and Romantic Relationships: A Systematic Review in Adolescence and Emerging Adulthood (2019) · cites this paper as [153]
PPWB is associated with higher psychological functioning, lower incidence of chronic diseases, lower risk of cardiovascular events, and improved health behaviors.
“PPWB is associated with higher psychological functioning, 16 lower incidence of chronic diseases (e.g., gastrointestinal disease, arthritis), 18 lower risk of cardiovascular events, 19 and improved health behaviors such as regular exercise, restful sleep, and a decreased sedentary behavior. 1”
From Positive psychological well-being in women with obesity: A scoping review of qualitative and quantitative primary research (2022) · cites this paper as [18]
Low levels of positive mental health are associated with more somatic diseases, increased risk of developing a mental disorder, and decreased social and work-related functioning, after correcting for psychopathology.
“studies have shown that after correcting for psychopathology, low levels of positive mental health are associated with more somatic diseases, increased risk of developing a mental disorder, and decreased social and work-related functioning [56].”
The original version of the MHC-SF obtained good internal consistency for the full scale (α = 0.74) and between acceptable and good internal consistency for the subscales (α = 0.59 and 0.70).
“The original version of the instrument obtained good internal consistency for the full scale (α = 0.74) and between acceptable and good internal consistency for the sub-scales (α = 0.59 and 0.70; Keyes, 2007 ).”
From A latent profile analysis of aggression and prosocial behavior in relation to adolescent wellbeing (2025) · cites this paper as Keyes, 2007
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The Hierarchical Structure of Well‐Being
Gallagher, M. W., Lopez, S. J., & Preacher, K. J. (2009) · Journal of Personality · doi:10.1111/j.1467-6494.2009.00573.x · Cited by 588 · see citing works
“Some studies have independently examined eudaimonic or social well-being (Keyes, 1998; Ryff & Keyes, 1995), some have examined hedonic and eudaimonic well-being in tandem (Keyes et al., 2002), and some have used aggregate measures of eudaimonic, social, and hedonic well-being (Keyes, 2005, 2007).”
InfluentialImpact of COVID-19 pandemic on mental health: An international study
Gloster, A. T., Lamnisos, D., Lubenko, J., Presti, G., Squatrito, V., Constantinou, M., Nicolaou, C., Papacostas, S., Aydın, G., Chong, Y. Y., et al. (2020) · PLOS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0244809 · Cited by 558 · see citing works
Meier, A., & Reinecke, L. (2021) · Communication Research · doi:10.1177/0093650220958224 · Cited by 534 · see citing works
Martela, F., & Sheldon, K. M. (2019) · Review of General Psychology · doi:10.1177/1089268019880886 · Cited by 583 · see citing works
“122), and thus indicators of SWB should be complemented with indicators of eudaimonic well-being (EWB) and psychological functioning (Keyes, 2007).”
BackgroundMartin, A. J., & Marsh, H. W. (2009) · Oxford Review of Education · doi:10.1080/03054980902934639 · Cited by 540 · see citing works
“…perspective, there is emerging theory and research proposing that mental health is not simply the absence of mental illness but also the capacity to ‘flourish’ (Keyes, 2007)—a theme consistent with the present interest in an asset-oriented and aspirational approach to resilience and buoyancy.”
BackgroundRosenfield, S., & Mouzon, D. M. (2012) · Handbooks of sociology and social research · doi:10.1007/978-94-007-4276-5_14 · Cited by 553 · see citing works
A systematic review and meta-analysis of psychological interventions to improve mental wellbeing
van Agteren, J., Iasiello, M., Lo, L., Bartholomaeus, J., Kopsaftis, Z., Carey, M., & Kyrios, M. (2021) · Nature Human Behaviour · doi:10.1038/s41562-021-01093-w · Cited by 510 · see citing works
Wong, Y. J., Ho, M.-H. R., Wang, S.-Y., & Miller, I. S. K. (2017) · Journal of Counseling Psychology · doi:10.1037/cou0000176 · Cited by 507 · see citing works
“Therefore, following Keyes (2005, 2007) as well as previous counseling psychology meta-analyses involving mental health (Yoon et al., 2013), we treated positive mental health and negative mental health as orthogonal constructs.”
Gratitude and subjective well‐being in early adolescence: Examining gender differences
Froh, J. J., Yurkewicz, C., & Kashdan, T. B. (2009) · Journal of Adolescence · doi:10.1016/j.adolescence.2008.06.006 · Cited by 494 · see citing works
“Mitigating pathology is important, but its absence is different from mental health (Keyes, 2007).”
Keyes, C. L. M., & Annas, J. (2009) · The Journal of Positive Psychology · doi:10.1080/17439760902844228 · Cited by 485 · see citing works
“In sum, studies of the US adult population (see Keyes, 2007) have shown than anything less than flourishing is associated with increased impairment and burden as measured by lost work productivity, increased disability, increased risk of cardiovascular disease, more chronic physical illness at all…”
BackgroundSelf-citationKeyes, C. L. M., Eisenberg, D., Perry, G. S., Dube, S. R., Kroenke, K., & Dhingra, S. S. (2012) · Journal of American College Health · doi:10.1080/07448481.2011.608393 · Cited by 483 · see citing works
“Notably, this is the first study to examine the utility of the MHC-SF in a large sample of college students with findings that add to a growing literature on the importance of two continua model of mental health, 17 , 36 and merits further investigation.”
BackgroundSelf-citationVanhove, A. J., Herian, M. N., Perez, A. L. U., Harms, P. D., & Lester, P. B. (2016) · Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology · doi:10.1111/joop.12123 · Cited by 443 · see citing works
Prilleltensky, I. (2011) · American Journal of Community Psychology · doi:10.1007/s10464-011-9448-8 · Cited by 438 · see citing works
“There is a reciprocally deterministic relationship between thriving individuals and flourishing systems (Buettner 2008, 2010; Gladwell 2008; Keyes 2007; McKnight and Block 2010; Prilleltensky and Prilleltensky 2006).”
BackgroundPsychometric properties of the Positive Mental Health Scale (PMH-scale)
Lukat, J., Margraf, J., Lutz, R., van der Veld, W. M., & Becker, E. S. (2016) · BMC Psychology · doi:10.1186/s40359-016-0111-x · Cited by 449 · see citing works
“, [31, 36, 52]).”
Leppin, A. L., Bora, P. R., Tilburt, J. C., Gionfriddo, M. R., Zeballos-Palacios, C., Dulohery, M. M., Sood, A., Erwin, P. J., Brito, J. P., Boehmer, K. R., et al. (2014) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0111420 · Cited by 405 · see citing works
“[6–9] The predictors and effects of resilience have been examined among those living with chronic illness, overcoming traumatic experiences, and prospering in stressful work environments.”
BackgroundFlourishing via Workplace Relationships: Moving Beyond Instrumental Support
Colbert, A. E., Bono, J. E., & Purvanova, R. K. (2015) · Academy of Management Journal · doi:10.5465/amj.2014.0506 · Cited by 409 · see citing works
To Flourish or Not: Positive Mental Health and All-Cause Mortality
Keyes, C. L. M., & Simoes, E. J. (2012) · American Journal of Public Health · doi:10.2105/ajph.2012.300918 · Cited by 397 · see citing works
Self-citationWeiss, L. A., Westerhof, G. J., & Bohlmeijer, E. T. (2016) · PLOS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0158092 · Cited by 405 · see citing works
Positive expectancies and mental health: Identifying the unique contributions of hope and optimism
Gallagher, M. W., & Lopez, S. J. (2009) · The Journal of Positive Psychology · doi:10.1080/17439760903157166 · Cited by 390 · see citing works
“…in the individual difference and psychological factors that can promote well-being has increased in recent years as research examining the characteristics and structure of well-being has begun to clarify the nature of positive mental health (Gallagher, Lopez, & Preacher, 2009; Keyes, 2005, 2007).”
BackgroundKeyes's Model of Mental Health with Personal Growth Initiative as a Parsimonious Predictor.
Robitschek, C., & Keyes, C. L. M. (2009) · Journal of Counseling Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0013954 · Cited by 356 · see citing works
“Specifically, missed days of work, cutbacks in the amount of work, limitations of activities of daily living, prevalence of cardiovascular disease, average number of chronic physical health conditions, and poor psychosocial functioning are lowest among flourishing individuals and highest among languishing individuals…”
BackgroundSelf-citationThe ‘What’, ‘Why’ and ‘How’ of Employee Well-Being: A New Model
Page, K. M., & Vella-Brodrick, D. A. (2009) · Social Indicators Research · doi:10.1007/s11205-008-9270-3 · Cited by 550 · see citing works
Second Wave Positive Psychology: Exploring the Positive–Negative Dialectics of Wellbeing
Lomas, T., & Ivtzan, I. (2015) · Journal of Happiness Studies · doi:10.1007/s10902-015-9668-y · Cited by 381 · see citing works
“This insight builds upon recent theorising by Keyes (2007), whose dualcontinua model proposes that wellbeing and ill-being are not two poles of a continuum, but are two separate dimensions of functioning.”
MethodThe effects of daily stress on positive and negative mental health: Mediation through self-efficacy
Schönfeld, P., Brailovskaia, J., Bieda, A., Zhang, X.-C., & Margraf, J. (2015) · International Journal of Clinical and Health Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.ijchp.2015.08.005 · Cited by 361 · see citing works
“This fits with the dual factor model of mental health, acknowledging psychological functioning and mental health problems as separate, yet correlated, unipolar dimensions (Keyes, 2007; Suldo & Shaffer, 2008; Wang, Zhang, & Wang, 2011; Weich et al., 2011).”
BackgroundThe Black–White Paradox in Health: Flourishing in the Face of Social Inequality and Discrimination
Keyes, C. L. M. (2009) · Journal of Personality · doi:10.1111/j.1467-6494.2009.00597.x · Cited by 364 · see citing works
“Indeed, as reported in Keyes (2007), there was a main effect of race and an interaction of race and gender when using the continuous measure of overall mental health as the dependent variable.”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialSelf-citationMental Health and Well-Being of University Students: A Bibliometric Mapping of the Literature
Hernández, D., Ibrayeva, L., Sparks, J., Lim, N., Clementi, A., Almukhambetova, A., Nurtayev, Y., & Muratkyzy, A. (2020) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01226 · Cited by 361 · see citing works
“…address these issues, Keyes has successfully integrated the notions of mental illness, mental health, well-being, and other related terms in the literature into a conceptual framework that allows for a more comprehensive understanding of mental health (Keyes, 2005, 2007; Keyes and Michalec, 2010).”
BackgroundNelson, S. K., Layous, K., Cole, S. W., & Lyubomirsky, S. (2016) · Emotion · doi:10.1037/emo0000178 · Cited by 356 · see citing works
Henderson, L. W., & Knight, T. (2012) · International Journal of Wellbeing · doi:10.5502/ijw.v2i3.3 · Cited by 356 · see citing works
“Keyes (2007) proposed a similar model of wellbeing, which suggests that flourishing includes ‚symptoms‛ of both hedonia and eudaimonia.”
BackgroundThe definition and preliminary measurement of thriving in adolescence
Benson, P., & Scales, P. C. (2009) · The Journal of Positive Psychology · doi:10.1080/17439760802399240 · Cited by 347 · see citing works
“Keyes (2007) states that, to be defined as flourishing, individuals must have high levels on at least one of two measures of positive emotions (positive affect, and avowed quality of life), and high levels on at least six of 11 measures of positive psychological and social functioning (among them…”
BackgroundMental health promotion and mental illness prevention: the economic case
Knapp, M. R. J., McDaid, D., & Parsonage, M. (2011) · London School of Economics and Political Science Research Online (London School of Economics and Political Science) · Cited by 341 · see citing works
Slemp, G. R., & Vella‐Brodrick, D. (2013) · Journal of Happiness Studies · doi:10.1007/s10902-013-9458-3 · Cited by 341 · see citing works
Well-Being and Romantic Relationships: A Systematic Review in Adolescence and Emerging Adulthood
Gómez-López, M., Viejo, C., & Ortega-Ruiz, R. (2019) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph16132415 · Cited by 322 · see citing works
“This is quite surprising, especially considering that it has previously been established that health and mental illness work in a relatively independent manner [153], and that the factors which make either reduce do not necessarily cause the other to increase [154].”
BackgroundMeaningful Work, Employee Engagement, and Other Key Employee Outcomes
Fairlie, P. C. (2011) · Advances in Developing Human Resources · doi:10.1177/1523422311431679 · Cited by 331 · see citing works
“Second, meaning has been linked to well-being (Brunstein, Schultheiss, & Grässmann, 1998; Diener, Suh, Lucas, & Smith, 1999; Keyes, 2007; McKnight & Kashdan, 2009).”
Risk and protective factors for mental health in elite athletes: a scoping review
Kuettel, A., & Larsen, C. H. (2020) · International Review of Sport and Exercise Psychology · doi:10.1080/1750984x.2019.1689574 · Cited by 311 · see citing works
“In this review, we refer to Keyes’ (2002; 2007) two-continuum model in which MH is characterized as a complete state.”
BackgroundLamers, S. M. A., Bolier, L., Westerhof, G. J., Smit, F., & Bohlmeijer, E. T. (2012) · Journal of Behavioral Medicine · doi:10.1007/s10865-011-9379-8 · Cited by 306 · see citing works
“…is accumulating evidence that psychopathology and wellbeing are more than merely opposite poles of the same dimension (Huppert & Whittington, 2003; Keyes, 2005, 2007; Lamers et al., 2011; Watson & Tellegen, 1985), and both well-being and mental disorders may have independent impacts on physical…”
BackgroundLink, B. G., & Phelan, J. C. (2012) · Handbooks of sociology and social research · doi:10.1007/978-94-007-4276-5_25 · Cited by 304 · see citing works
Slemp, G. R., & Vella‐Brodrick, D. (2013) · International Journal of Wellbeing · Cited by 299 · see citing works
Wearable, Wireless EEG Solutions in Daily Life Applications: What are we Missing?
Mihajlović, V., Grundlehner, B., Vullers, R. J. M., & Penders, J. (2014) · IEEE Journal of Biomedical and Health Informatics · doi:10.1109/jbhi.2014.2328317 · Cited by 293 · see citing works
Mental Health as a Complete State: How the Salutogenic Perspective Completes the Picture
Keyes, C. L. M. (2013) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-94-007-5640-3_11 · Cited by 304 · see citing works
“Findings consistently show that adults and adolescents who are diagnosed as anything less than fl ourishing are doing worse in terms of physical health outcomes, healthcare utilization, missed days of work, and psychosocial functioning (Keyes, 2002 , 2005b , 2006 , 2007 , 2009 ).”
BackgroundInfluentialSelf-citationThe Mental Health Continuum–Short Form (MHC–SF) as a Measure of Well-Being in the Italian Context
Petrillo, G., Capone, V., Caso, D., & Keyes, C. L. M. (2014) · Social Indicators Research · doi:10.1007/s11205-014-0629-3 · Cited by 279 · see citing works
Self-citationPsychological Functioning in a Sample of Long-Term Practitioners of Mindfulness Meditation
Lykins, E. L. B., & Baer, R. A. (2009) · Journal of Cognitive Psychotherapy · doi:10.1891/0889-8391.23.3.226 · Cited by 268 · see citing works
“This instrument is based on a review of many theories of psychological health (Ryff, 1989), which is often described as broader than the absence of symptoms (Hayes et al., 1999; Keyes, 2007; Snyder & Lopez, 2002).”
MethodThe Impact of Organizational Factors on Psychological Needs and Their Relations with Well-Being
Gillet, N., Fouquereau, E., Forest, J., Brunault, P., & Colombat, P. (2011) · Journal of Business and Psychology · doi:10.1007/s10869-011-9253-2 · Cited by 268 · see citing works
Hamby, S. L., Grych, J. H., & Banyard, V. (2017) · Psychology of Violence · doi:10.1037/vio0000135 · Cited by 265 · see citing works
“Existing empirical studies incorporating measures of well-being along with clinical symptoms have shown that these distinct outcomes can have different correlates (e.g., Antaramian, Scott Huebner, Hills, & Valois, 2010; Keyes, 2007).”
BackgroundWersebe, H., Lieb, R., Meyer, A. H., Hofer, P., & Gloster, A. T. (2018) · International Journal of Clinical and Health Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.ijchp.2017.09.002 · Cited by 250 · see citing works
“Prior studies with population-based samples investigatng the interdependence of well-being and psychopathology Keyes, 2007; Lamers, Westerhof, Glas, & Bohlmeijer, 2015; rompetter, de Kleine, & Bohlmeijer, 2016) showed that ell-being protects against mental illness through compoents such as positive…”
InfluentialThe role of passion in sustainable psychological well-being
Vallerand, R. J. (2012) · Psychology of Well-Being Theory Research and Practice · doi:10.1186/2211-1522-2-1 · Cited by 245 · see citing works
“Keyes CLM (2007).”
Kraiss, J. T., ten Klooster, P. M., Moskowitz, J. T., & Bohlmeijer, E. T. (2020) · Comprehensive Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.comppsych.2020.152189 · Cited by 252 · see citing works
“Another explanation could be that well-being cannot simply be considered as the opposite of psychopathology [33,36,42,48,91].”
BackgroundCatalino, L. I., & Fredrickson, B. L. (2011) · Emotion · doi:10.1037/a0024889 · Cited by 254 · see citing works
What Factors are Associated with Flourishing? Results from a Large Representative National Sample
Schotanus-Dijkstra, M., Pieterse, M. E., Drossaert, C. H. C., Westerhof, G. J., de Graaf, R., ten Have, M., Walburg, J. A., & Bohlmeijer, E. T. (2015) · Journal of Happiness Studies · doi:10.1007/s10902-015-9647-3 · Cited by 264 · see citing works
“…evidence for flourishing has hitherto been based on a narrow empirical sample because the currently available studies on factors related to flourishing all relied on a single database, the Midlife in the United States (MIDUS) study (Keyes 2002, 2005, 2007; Keyes et al. 2002; Keyes and Simoes 2012).”
BackgroundResultInfluentialPositive Indicators of Child Well-Being: A Conceptual Framework, Measures, and Methodological Issues
Lippman, L., Moore, K. A., & McIntosh, H. (2011) · Applied Research in Quality of Life · doi:10.1007/s11482-011-9138-6 · Cited by 241 · see citing works
“, Keyes, C. L. M., Moore, K. A. and The Center for Child Well-being (Eds.). (2002a). Well-being: Positive Development across the Life Course.”
BackgroundMethodKashdan, T. B., Morina, N., & Priebe, S. (2009) · Journal of Anxiety Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.janxdis.2008.06.006 · Cited by 237 · see citing works
“The greatest psychological health is theorized to be the result of both the absence of disorder and the ability to adapt to changing life circumstances—acceptance and psychological flexibility (see Keyes, 2005, 2007 for related ideas).”
BackgroundA randomised controlled trial of a self-guided internet intervention promoting well-being
Mitchell, J., Stanimirovic, R., Klein, B., & Vella-Brodrick, D. (2009) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2009.02.003 · Cited by 226 · see citing works
“Subsequently, some well-being theorists have combined both SWB and PWB into unifying models of well-being, for example, the complete state model of mental health (Keyes, 2005; Keyes, 2007) and the orientations to happiness (Peterson, Park, & Seligman, 2005).”
BackgroundCounseling for Work and Relationship
Richardson, M. S. (2011) · The Counseling Psychologist · doi:10.1177/0011000011406452 · Cited by 233 · see citing works
“Although older adults may retire from market work, the construction of lives that include participation in productive and meaningful personal care work is critical for promoting the kind of flourishing that Keyes (2007) suggests should be a goal of health care policy.”
BackgroundFurlong, M. J., You, S., Renshaw, T. L., Smith, D. C., & O’Malley, M. D. (2013) · Social Indicators Research · doi:10.1007/s11205-013-0373-0 · Cited by 231 · see citing works
Gielnik, M., Zacher, H., & Frese, M. (2012) · Journal of Business Venturing · doi:10.1016/j.jbusvent.2010.05.002 · Cited by 199 · see citing works
“…at higher ages because it helps to protect, retain, and replenish personal resources, to frame negative experiences positively, and to deal successfully with age-related demands, dif fi culties, and constraints (Hobfoll and Wells, 1998; Keyes, 2007; Knight et al., 2006; Lazarus and Delongis, 1983).”
InfluentialCapone, V., & Petrillo, G. (2018) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-018-9878-7 · Cited by 226 · see citing works
“According to the Mental Health Continuum Model (Keyes 2005, 2006, 2007), mental health, like mental illness, is a syndrome of symptoms.”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialToward a Quality-of-Life Theory of Leisure Travel Satisfaction
Sirgy, M. J. (2009) · Journal of Travel Research · doi:10.1177/0047287509337416 · Cited by 223 · see citing works
“…(e.g., Emmons 1986, 1999; Emmons and King 1988; Emmons, Shepherd, and Kaiser 1994), Gollwitzer (1993), Kasser and Ryan (e.g., Kasser 1997; Kasser and Ryan 1993, 1996; Kasser et al. 1995; Sheldon and Kasser 2001), Keyes (2005, 2007), McGregor and Little (1998), and Omodei and Wearing (1990).”
BackgroundRelations among mindfulness, well-being, and sleep
Howell, A. J., Digdon, N. L., Buro, K., & Sheptycki, A. R. (2008) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2008.08.005 · Cited by 217 · see citing works
Flourishing: Achievement-related correlates of students’ well-being
Howell, A. J. (2009) · The Journal of Positive Psychology · doi:10.1080/17439760802043459 · Cited by 213 · see citing works
“Keyes ( 2003 , 2005 , 2007 ) described a model of mental health in which mental health and mental disorder are two separate but related dimensions of functioning.”
BackgroundInfluentialCook‐Cottone, C. P. (2015) · Body Image · doi:10.1016/j.bodyim.2015.03.004 · Cited by 207 · see citing works
Conner, T. S., Brookie, K. L., Carr, A. C., Mainvil, L. A., & Vissers, M. C. M. (2017) · PLOS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0171206 · Cited by 207 · see citing works
Oades, L. G., Robinson, P., Green, S., & Spence, G. B. (2011) · The Journal of Positive Psychology · doi:10.1080/17439760.2011.634828 · Cited by 166 · see citing works
“Keyes, 2007 ; Rath & Harter, 2010 ; Ryff & Keyes, 1995 ).”
BackgroundJoshanloo, M. (2016) · Journal of Happiness Studies · doi:10.1007/s10902-015-9683-z · Cited by 205 · see citing works
“Keyes has proposed a comprehensive model of mental well-being where both optimal functioning and hedonic well-being are taken into account (Keyes 2002, 2007, 2013).”
BackgroundAddressing the Determinants of Positive Mental Health: Concepts, Evidence and Practice
Barry, M. M. (2009) · International Journal of Mental Health Promotion · doi:10.1080/14623730.2009.9721788 · Cited by 200 · see citing works
“Keyes (2007) articulates this situation as the ‘roadmap to health is through illness’.”
Proyer, R. T., Gander, F., Wellenzohn, S., & Ruch, W. (2014) · Aging & Mental Health · doi:10.1080/13607863.2014.899978 · Cited by 198 · see citing works
“15; see also Keyes, 2007). The question arises on how mental health, or the ‘good life’ from a positive psychology perspective can be achieved – and what individual contributions may be. Lyubomirsky, Sheldon, and Schkade (2005) argue that there are three major contributors to happiness, i.”
BackgroundChaves, C., Lopez-Gomez, I., Hervas, G., & Vazquez, C. (2017) · Cognitive Therapy and Research · doi:10.1007/s10608-016-9778-9 · Cited by 196 · see citing works
“Rationale for treatment from a positive psychology perspective Based on Keyes (2007), Seligman et al. (2006), Gilbert (2012), among others 2 Positive emotions: identify and name positive emotions and learn to promote them Seligman et al. (2006) Hedonic 3 Savoring to amplify the intensity and…”
BackgroundRaibley, J. R. (2012) · Journal of Happiness Studies · doi:10.1007/s10902-011-9309-z · Cited by 169 · see citing works
“This condition consists not merely in the absence of mental illness but in the presence of various stances, dispositions, and abilities (cf. Keyes 2007).”
BackgroundVolunteer Work and Hedonic, Eudemonic, and Social Well‐Being
Son, J., & Wilson, J. (2012) · Sociological Forum · doi:10.1111/j.1573-7861.2012.01340.x · Cited by 192 · see citing works
“The inspiration for the scale comes from a World Health Organization document in which a definition of a person's wellbeing includes being able ''to make a contribution to his or her community'' (Keyes, 2007:98).”
MethodCaprara, G. V., Steca, P., Alessandri, G., Abela, J. R., & McWhinnie, C. M. (2010) · Epidemiologia e Psichiatria Sociale · doi:10.1017/s1121189x00001615 · Cited by 189 · see citing works
“This calls for a strong commitment of both scholars and practitioners to the identification of adequate indicators of positive mental functioning or flourishing (Keyes, 2007) to serve in research studies as well as in the design and implementation of interventions.”
BackgroundWell-Being and the Risk of Depression under Stress
Grant, F., Guille, C., & Sen, S. (2013) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0067395 · Cited by 189 · see citing works
Potential of social media in promoting mental health in adolescents
O’Reilly, M., Dogra, N., Hughes, J., Reilly, P., George, R., & Whiteman, N. (2019) · Health Promotion International · doi:10.1093/heapro/day056 · Cited by 177 · see citing works
“…illness is not necessarily synonymous with the presence of mental health, and curing mental illness will not guarantee a mentally healthy society (Keyes, 2007); but by working with appropriate organizations in health and education, the digital society affords some opportunity to reach…”
BackgroundApplication of Machine Learning Methods in Mental Health Detection: A Systematic Review
Rahman, R. A., Omar, K., Noah, S. A. M., Danuri, M. S. N. M., & Al-Garadi, M. A. (2020) · IEEE Access · doi:10.1109/access.2020.3029154 · Cited by 189 · see citing works
“Early detection, accurate diagnosis, and effective treat-ment can alleviate the suffering of people who are dealing with mental health challenges [8].”
BackgroundKeyes, C. L. M., & Westerhof, G. J. (2012) · Aging & Mental Health · doi:10.1080/13607863.2011.596811 · Cited by 209 · see citing works
“According to the criteria outlined by Keyes (2002, 2005a, 2007), individuals had FMH if they reported a high level on the positive affect scale or the life satisfaction item in combination with a high level on six of the 11 scales of positive functioning (i.e., any of the six psychological, or any…”
BackgroundMethodSelf-citationBrown, D. J. W., Arnold, R., Fletcher, D., & Standage, M. (2017) · European Psychologist · doi:10.1027/1016-9040/a000294 · Cited by 180 · see citing works
“For example, Benson and Scales (2009) identify spiritual development and prosocial orientations as explicit indicators of thriving in adolescent populations, whereas these themes are not pronounced in flourishing research (see, e.g., Keyes, 2007).”
BackgroundJoshanloo, M., Wissing, M. P., Khumalo, I. P., & Lamers, S. M. A. (2013) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2013.06.002 · Cited by 169 · see citing works
From motivation to passion: In search of the motivational processes involved in a meaningful life.
Vallerand, R. J. (2012) · Canadian Psychology/Psychologie canadienne · doi:10.1037/a0026377 · Cited by 171 · see citing works
“, Keyes, 2007). However, if one’s passion is obsessive, then the positive effects may not be forthcoming and an increase in poor functioning may even take place. Much research supports the above hypothesis with psychological well-being. For instance, in research with elderly individuals, Rousseau and Vallerand (2003)…”
BackgroundInfluentialGucciardi, D. F., Hanton, S., & Fleming, S. (2016) · Journal of science and medicine in sport · doi:10.1016/j.jsams.2016.08.006 · Cited by 176 · see citing works
Hendriks, T., de Jong, J. T. V. M., & Cramer, H. (2017) · The Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine · doi:10.1089/acm.2016.0334 · Cited by 169 · see citing works
Trousselard, M., Steiler, D., Dutheil, F., Claverie, D., Canini, F., Fenouillet, F., Naughton, G., Stewart-Brown, S., & Franck, N. (2016) · Psychiatry Research · doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2016.08.050 · Cited by 152 · see citing works
“First, the factorial structure was investigated using exploratory factor analyses with oblique rotation, in accordance with previous WEMWBS validations (Keyes, 2007; Tennant et al., 2007), and confirmatory factor analyses using weighted least squares estimation.”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialVisser, M. J., & Wyk, E. L.-V. (2021) · South African Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1177/00812463211012219 · Cited by 180 · see citing works
“This scale has been used in numerous studies worldwide (Keyes, 2007) and has good internal consistency (>0.80) and validity in the South African context (Keyes et al., 2008).”
MethodInfluentialThe Polish adaptation of the Mental Health Continuum-Short Form (MHC-SF)
Karaś, D., Cieciuch, J., & Keyes, C. L. M. (2014) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2014.05.011 · Cited by 166 · see citing works
“In addition, the long and short forms of the MHC have been useful in improving the scientific understanding of the risk of future mental illness (MDE, GAD, and panic attacks; see Keyes, Dhingra, & Simoes, 2010), risk of premature mortality (Keyes & Simoes, 2012), healthcare utilization, missed days of work, disability…”
BackgroundSelf-citationThe effects of whiteness on the health of whites in the USA
Malat, J., Mayorga, S., & Williams, D. R. (2017) · Social Science & Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2017.06.034 · Cited by 159 · see citing works
“Flourishing refers to a positive state of mental health characterized by the absence of mental disorders along with high levels of psychological well-being on multiple dimensions, including positive emotions and high social and psychological functioning (Keyes, 2007).”
BackgroundCapone, V., Caso, D., Donizzetti, A. R., & Procentese, F. (2020) · Sustainability · doi:10.3390/su12177039 · Cited by 165 · see citing works
“In our study, we included all these views, following the Mental Health Continuum model [13].”
MethodResultZacher, H., Heusner, S., Schmitz, M., Zwierzanska, M. M., & Frese, M. (2010) · Journal of Vocational Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.jvb.2009.09.001 · Cited by 166 · see citing works
“In terms of emotional functioning, research showed that mental health is a particularly important resource at higher ages because it helps to protect, retain, and replenish other important resources such as physical health and learning motivation (Hobfoll & Wells, 1998; Keyes, 2007; Warr, 1990).”
Background
- Authors
- Keyes, C. L. M.
- Affiliations
- Emory University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Keyes, Corey L. M.
- ORCID
- Keyes, Corey L. M.
- Venue
- American Psychologist
- Published
- 2007
- Volume
- 62
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 95-108
- ISSN
- 0003-066X (ISSN-L)
- 1935-990X
- OpenAlex
- W2037808094
- Cited by
- 2,268
- References
- 73
- Citations by year
- 2026: 149 · 2025: 161 · 2024: 159 · 2023: 164 · 2022: 216 · 2021: 176 · 2020: 146 · 2019: 140 · 2018: 117 · 2017: 154 · 2016: 112 · 2015: 105 · 2014: 83 · 2013: 107 · 2012: 78
- FWCI
- 61.73
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- American Psychologist (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Psychological Well-being and Life Satisfaction
- Health Sciences › Health Professions › General Health Professions › Health, psychology, and well-being
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Mental Health Treatment and Access
- Keywords
- eudaimonia, mental health continuum, mental health promotion, mental illness prevention, psychosocial functioning, resilience, helplessness, cardiovascular risk, chronic physical illness, health care utilization, labor productivity, National Mental Health Policy
- MeSH terms
- Adult, Age Factors, Aged, Mental Disorders, Educational Status, Female, Health Promotion, Humans, Male, Mental Health, Middle Aged, Quality of Life, Sex Factors, Socioeconomic Factors, United States, Racial Groups
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