Cognitive and behavioural flexibility: neural mechanisms and clinical considerations

In the paper

“greater creativity was broadly predicted by grey matter of the inferior frontal gyrus and inferior parietal lobule as well as white matter integrity of the basal ganglia147.”

What the sources say

• Partly supported

  Section 4.2 reports a positive correlation between creativity and IFG grey matter density, along with IFG–IPL connectivity, but does not report grey matter in the IPL as a predictor. Section 3.3 identifies left basal-ganglia white-matter integrity as a creativity predictor that generalized to another creativity measure. The claim is therefore supported except for its attribution of a grey-matter predictor to the IPL; page numbers were not available in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.88)

  cites [147] Sunavsky, A. & Poppenk, J. Neuroimaging predictors of creativity in healthy adults. Neuroimage 206, 116292 (2020). sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured

In the paper

“Entering the terms describing the latent variables comprising executive function into Neurosynth reveals that the brain maps associated with these interrelated cognitive constructs are highly overlapping7 (Fig. 1a).”

• Also stated in: § Cognitive flexibility in humans · plain

  “Neurosynth reveals that brain imaging studies including the terms ‘shifting’, ‘updating’ and ‘inhibition’ report highly overlapping patterns of activation in lateral frontoparietal and midcingulo-insular brain regions”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [7] Miyake, A. et al. The unity and diversity of executive functions and their contributions to complex ‘frontal lobe’ tasks: a latent variable analysis. Cogn. Psychol. 41, 49–100 (2000). source
• Not checked yetcites [29] Yarkoni, T., Poldrack, R. A., Nichols, T. E., Van Essen, D. C. & Wager, T. D. Large-scale automated synthesis of human functional neuroimaging data. Nat. Methods 8, 665–670 (2011). source

In the paper

“This work has identified large-scale functional brain networks encompassing lateral and orbital frontoparietal, midcingulo-insular and frontostriatal regions that support flexibility across the lifespan.”

• Also stated in: § Cognitive flexibility in humans · boosted

  “A large body of literature on human functional neuroimaging studies using task-switching and set-shifting paradigms points to a central role for the lateral frontoparietal network (L-FPN) and the midcingulo-insular network (M-CIN) in supporting executive function and cognitive flexibility20,30.”

• Also stated in: § Behavioural flexibility in animals · hedged

  “These findings have led to the proposal that the lateral PFC is necessary for shifting of responding between abstract perceptual dimensions, whereas the OFC and associated corticostriatal loops are necessary for shifting of responding between different stimuli with specific associations with reinforcement36.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [20] Dajani, D. R. & Uddin, L. Q. Demystifying cognitive flexibility: Implications for clinical and developmental neuroscience. Trends Neurosci. 38, 571–578 (2015). source
• Not checked yetcites [30] Seeley, W. W. et al. Dissociable intrinsic connectivity networks for salience processing and executive control. J. Neurosci. 27, 2349–2356 (2007). source
• Not checked yetcites [36] Robbins, T. W. Shifting and stopping: fronto-striatal substrates, neurochemical modulation and clinical implications. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. B Biol. Sci. 362, 917–932 (2007). source

In the paper

“During a task requiring flexible selection of items based on different stimulus dimensions, participants initially directly engaged the IFJ, leading to recruitment of other L-FPN and M-CIN regions, including the dlPFC, IPL, anterior midcingulate cortex and AI via functional connections33.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [33] Dajani, D. R. et al. Measuring cognitive flexibility with the flexible item selection task: from MRI adaptation to individual connectome mapping. J. Cogn. Neurosci. 32, 1026–1045 (2020). This functional neuroimaging study in humans demonstrates that flexible item selection directly engages the left IFJ, which influences activity in other cortical and subcortical brain regions supporting cognitive flexibility. source

In the paper

“The overlap in lateral frontoparietal and striatal involvement for both flexibility and creativity points to potential shared neural substrates for these related constructs.”

In the paper

“Performance on the WCST is strongly related to shifting (also referred to as ‘attention switching‘ or ‘task switching’), which involves the disengagement of an irrelevant task set and subsequent active engagement of a relevant task set7.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [7] Miyake, A. et al. The unity and diversity of executive functions and their contributions to complex ‘frontal lobe’ tasks: a latent variable analysis. Cogn. Psychol. 41, 49–100 (2000). source

In the paper

“Likewise, flexibility in later life can mitigate the effects of ageing on cognitive decline4.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [4] Burke, S. N. et al. What are the later life contributions to reserve, resilience, and compensation? Neurobiol. Aging 83, 140–144 (2019). source

In the paper

“Developmental and lifespan research suggests that flexibility promotes academic achievement, employment success2, successful transitioning to adulthood3 and other optimal life outcomes.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [3] Burt, K. B. & Paysnick, A. A. Resilience in the transition to adulthood. Dev. Psychopathol. 24, 493–505 (2012). source

In the paper

“one study found that the IFJ is engaged during the updating of task representations, a core aspect of flexibility32.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [32] Derrfuss, J., Brass, M., Neumann, J. & von Cramon, D. Y. Involvement of the inferior frontal junction in cognitive control: meta-analyses of switching and Stroop studies. Hum. Brain Mapp. 25, 22–34 (2005). source

In the paper

“earlier work demonstrating domain-general task-switching activation in the IFJ34”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [34] Kim, C., Johnson, N. F., Cilles, S. E. & Gold, B. T. Common and distinct mechanisms of cognitive flexibility in prefrontal cortex. J. Neurosci. 31, 4771–4779 (2011). source

In the paper

“A large body of literature on human functional neuroimaging studies using task-switching and set-shifting paradigms points to a central role for the lateral frontoparietal network (L-FPN) and the midcingulo-insular network (M-CIN) in supporting executive function and cognitive flexibility20,30.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [20] Dajani, D. R. & Uddin, L. Q. Demystifying cognitive flexibility: Implications for clinical and developmental neuroscience. Trends Neurosci. 38, 571–578 (2015). source
• Not checked yetcites [30] Seeley, W. W. et al. Dissociable intrinsic connectivity networks for salience processing and executive control. J. Neurosci. 27, 2349–2356 (2007). source

In the paper

“Flexible thinking is a critical component of creativity, or the ability to think of new ideas or make new things.”

In the paper

“Cognitive flexibility is difficult to isolate, as it requires the confluence of several aspects of executive function20,28.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [20] Dajani, D. R. & Uddin, L. Q. Demystifying cognitive flexibility: Implications for clinical and developmental neuroscience. Trends Neurosci. 38, 571–578 (2015). source
• Not checked yetcites [28] Uddin, L. Q. Salience processing and insular cortical function and dysfunction. Nat. Rev. Neurosci. 16, 55–61 (2015). source

In the paper

“A meta-analysis of neuroimaging studies of divergent thinking indicates that brain networks underlying creative idea generation are composed of lateral prefrontal, posterior parietal and anterior cingulate cortices, as well as the caudate146.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [146] Wu, X. et al. A meta-analysis of neuroimaging studies on divergent thinking using activation likelihood estimation. Hum. Brain Mapp. 36, 2703–2718 (2015). source

In the paper

“What are referred to as ‘switch trials’ in cognitive flexibility studies are paralleled by ‘reversals’ in behavioural flexibility experiments.”

In the paper

“a brain region that exhibits meta-analytic co-activation and resting state functional connectivity with the AI, dlPFC and IPL35.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [35] Sundermann, B. & Pfleiderer, B. Functional connectivity profile of the human inferior frontal junction: involvement in a cognitive control network. BMC Neurosci. 13, 119 (2012). source

In the paper

“Neurons in the mouse OFC respond saliently and transiently to rule switches during reversal learning37.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [37] Banerjee, A. et al. Value-guided remapping of sensory cortex by lateral orbitofrontal cortex. Nature 585, 245–250 (2020). source

In the paper

“Dynamics between the default mode or medial frontoparietal network (M-FPN) and the L-FPN have also been linked to cognitive flexibility46.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [46] Douw, L., Wakeman, D. G., Tanaka, N., Liu, H. & Stufflebeam, S. M. State-dependent variability of dynamic functional connectivity between frontoparietal and default networks relates to cognitive flexibility. Neuroscience 339, 12–21 (2016). source

In the paper

“The dorsomedial striatum is thought to dynamically interact with multiple prefrontal subregions that generate new strategies to facilitate behavioural flexibility38.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [38] Ragozzino, M. E. The contribution of the medial prefrontal cortex, orbitofrontal cortex, and dorsomedial striatum to behavioral flexibility. Ann. NY Acad. Sci. 1121, 355–375 (2007). This review summarizes work in rodents delineating limbic, orbitofrontal and striatal contributions to behavioural flexibility. source

In the paper

“Time-varying functional connectivity of the M-CIN predicts individual differences in cognitive flexibility45.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [45] Chen, T., Cai, W., Ryali, S., Supekar, K. & Menon, V. Distinct global brain dynamics and spatiotemporal organization of the salience network. PLoS Biol. 14, e1002469 (2016). source

In the paper

“this emerging literature is in line with the notion that the ability of the brain to flexibly reconfigure itself in response to changing demands may underlie individual differences in flexible behaviours.”

In the paper

“Late life onset dementias, including Parkinson disease and Alzheimer disease, are also marked by rigidity and cognitive inflexibility.”

In the paper

“Neural flexibility, or the frequency with which brain regions change allegiance between functional modules, has recently been shown to increase with age during the first 2 years of life50.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [50] Yin, W. et al. The emergence of a functionally flexible brain during early infancy. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 117, 23904–23913 (2020). source

In the paper

“Flexibility deficits are observed in neurodevelopmental conditions with early life onset, such as ASD and ADHD, as well as psychiatric conditions that emerge in adolescence, including mood disorders, obsessive–compulsive disorder (OCD) and schizophrenia.”

In the paper

“it has been shown that certain patterns of whole-brain dynamics are associated with elevated levels of cognitive flexibility.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [44] Nomi, J. S. et al. Chronnectomic patterns and neural flexibility underlie executive function. Neuroimage 147, 861–871 (2017). This dynamic functional connectivity analysis demonstrates that individuals with the propensity to exhibit whole-brain dynamics characterized by attenuated correlations between brain regions and greater functional connectivity variability perform better on the WCST, a test of cognitive flexibility. source

In the paper

“Flexibility deficits are observed in neurodevelopmental conditions with early life onset, such as ASD and ADHD, as well as psychiatric conditions that emerge in adolescence, including mood disorders, obsessive–compulsive disorder (OCD) and schizophrenia.”

In the paper

“Older adults aged 59–73 years who exhibit upregulated brain signal variability show higher levels of task performance62.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [62] Garrett, D. D., Epp, S. M., Kleemeyer, M., Lindenberger, U. & Polk, T. A. Higher performers upregulate brain signal variability in response to more feature-rich visual input. Neuroimage 217, 116836 (2020). source

In the paper

“In children with ASD or ADHD, executive function and flexibility deficits are often observed in laboratory settings and in day-to-day activities64,65.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [64] Lai, C. L. E. et al. Meta-analysis of neuropsychological measures of executive functioning in children and adolescents with high-functioning autism spectrum disorder. Autism Res. 10, 911–939 (2017). source
• Not checked yetcites [65] Dajani, D. R., Llabre, M. M., Nebel, M. B., Mostofsky, S. H. & Uddin, L. Q. Heterogeneity of executive functions among comorbid neurodevelopmental disorders. Sci. Rep. 6, 36566 (2016). source

In the paper

“blood oxygen level-dependent (BOLD) variability is a better predictor of age than BOLD mean59.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [59] Garrett, D. D., Kovacevic, N., McIntosh, A. R. & Grady, C. L. Blood oxygen level-dependent signal variability is more than just noise. J. Neurosci. 30, 4914–4921 (2010). source

In the paper

“Neuroimaging additionally reveals the role of the dorsal anterior cingulate cortex and the inferior frontal gyrus in suppression of prior learned responses and response inhibition during reversal learning40.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [40] Ghahremani, D. G., Monterosso, J., Jentsch, J. D., Bilder, R. M. & Poldrack, R. A. Neural components underlying behavioral flexibility in human reversal learning. Cereb. Cortex 20, 1843–1852. This functional neuroimaging study reveals how human reversal learning and guidance of actions consistent with current reward contingencies engages the lateral OFC, dorsal anterior cingulate cortex and right inferior frontal cortex. source

In the paper

“OFC inactivation in rats impairs reversal learning owing to perseverance of previously learned choices15.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [15] Izquierdo, A., Brigman, J. L., Radke, A. K., Rudebeck, P. H. & Holmes, A. The neural basis of reversal learning: an updated perspective. Neuroscience 345, 12–26 (2017). source

In the paper

“Multimodal investigations considering both anatomical connectivity and activation dynamics find that greater alignment between white matter networks and functional signals is associated with greater cognitive flexibility48.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [48] Medaglia, J. D. et al. Functional alignment with anatomical networks is associated with cognitive flexibility. Nat. Hum. Behav. 2, 156–164 (2018). This multimodal neuroimaging study demonstrates how alignment between functional activation and underlying white matter networks is associated with greater cognitive flexibility across individuals. source

In the paper

“Several recent studies have further shown how individual differences in task performance are related to patterns of dynamic brain organization54,55.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [54] Allegra, M. et al. Brain network dynamics during spontaneous strategy shifts and incremental task optimization. NeuroImage 217, 116854 (2020). source
• Not checked yetcites [55] Saggar, M. et al. Towards a new approach to reveal dynamical organization of the brain using topological data analysis. Nat. Commun. 9, 1399 (2018). source

In the paper

“increased IFJ variability is linked to better performance on a cognitive flexibility task61.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [61] Armbruster-Genç, D. J. N., Ueltzhöffer, K. & Fiebach, C. J. Brain signal variability differentially affects cognitive flexibility and cognitive stability. J. Neurosci. 36, 3978–3987 (2016). source

In the paper

“Flexibility deficits in OCD manifest themselves as maladaptive patterns of recurrent and persistent thoughts, urges and impulses that are intrusive, as well as compulsions, including repetitive behaviours that an individual feels driven to perform69.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [69] American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5®). (American Psychiatric Association Publishing, 2013). source

In the paper

“Other work examining ASD, ADHD and co-morbid ASD and ADHD using latent profile analysis also provides evidence for transdiagnostic executive function classes65.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [65] Dajani, D. R., Llabre, M. M., Nebel, M. B., Mostofsky, S. H. & Uddin, L. Q. Heterogeneity of executive functions among comorbid neurodevelopmental disorders. Sci. Rep. 6, 36566 (2016). source

In the paper

“While ASD is characterized by difficulty in flexibly adapting to changes in routines, children with ADHD have difficulty with attentional focus and exhibit high levels of variability in moment-to-moment behaviours73.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [73] Kuntsi, J. & Klein, C. Intraindividual variability in ADHD and its implications for research of causal links. Curr. Top. Behav. Neurosci. 9, 67–91 (2012). source

In the paper

“Still, the story is not as simple as ‘impaired flexibility in ASD’ versus ‘heightened flexibility in ADHD’, as there is a very high degree of co-morbidity between these two disorders74 such that the combination of impaired flexibility and inattention can manifest itself in the same individual.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [74] Leitner, Y. The co-occurrence of autism and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in children - what do we know? Front. Hum. Neurosci. 8, 268 (2014). source

In the paper

“Just as in the general population, frontostriatal circuitry appears to be linked with variability of cognitive flexibility performance in schizophrenia96.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [96] Waltz, J. A. The neural underpinnings of cognitive flexibility and their disruption in psychotic illness. Neuroscience 345, 203–217 (2017). source

In the paper

“For example, intrinsic dynamics of the M-CIN (but not the L-FPN) have been shown to relate to individual differences in distractibility in neurotypical adults84.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [84] Steimke, R. et al. Salience network dynamics underlying successful resistance of temptation. Soc. Cogn. Affect. Neurosci. 12, 1928–1939 (2017). source

In the paper

“Studies of the neural circuitry underlying RRBs transdiagostically point to a critical role for frontostriatal systems in mediating these behaviours71.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [71] Wilkes, B. J. & Lewis, M. H. The neural circuitry of restricted repetitive behavior: Magnetic resonance imaging in neurodevelopmental disorders and animal models. Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev. 92, 152–171 (2018). source

In the paper

“Neuroimaging investigations across OCD and ASD provide evidence that increased functional connectivity within frontostriatal circuitry relates to more severe symptoms of repetitive behaviour91.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [91] Akkermans, S. E. A. et al. Frontostriatal functional connectivity correlates with repetitive behaviour across autism spectrum disorder and obsessive–compulsive disorder. Psychol. Med. 49, 2247–2255 (2019). source

In the paper

“Measurement issues complicate the assessment of flexibility deficits and their neural bases in ASD and ADHD, as different combinations of laboratory-based measures, neuropsychological tests and informant-report questionnaires have been used across studies72.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [72] Uddin, L. Q. Brain mechanisms supporting flexible cognition and behavior in adolescents with autism spectrum disorder. Biol. Psychiatry 89, 172–183 (2021). source

In the paper

“The severity of RRBs is associated with measures of cognitive inflexibility in ASD70.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [70] Lopez, B. R., Lincoln, A. J., Ozonoff, S. & Lai, Z. Examining the relationship between executive functions and restricted, repetitive symptoms of autistic disorder. J. Autism Dev. Disord. 35, 445–460 (2005). source

In the paper

“It is important to note that well-documented inflexible everyday behaviours in ASD are not necessarily directly related to cognitive flexibility deficits assessed experimentally85.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [85] Geurts, H. M., Corbett, B. & Solomon, M. The paradox of cognitive flexibility in autism. Trends Cognit. Sci. 13, 74–82 (2009). source

In the paper

“Age-related improvements in executive function are more clearly observed in ASD than in ADHD77.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [77] Happe, F., Booth, R., Charlton, R. & Hughes, C. Executive function deficits in autism spectrum disorders and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: examining profiles across domains and ages. Brain Cogn. 61, 25–39 (2006). source

In the paper

“Another reported no evidence for group differences in functional network connectivity across diagnostic groups80.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [80] Dajani, D. R. et al. Investigating functional brain network integrity using a traditional and novel categorical scheme for neurodevelopmental disorders. Neuroimage Clin. 21, 101678 (2019). source

In the paper

“In OCD, reduced activation of the OFC and frontostriatal regions during cognitive flexibility task performance is regularly reported92,93.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [92] Gu, B.-M. et al. Neural correlates of cognitive inflexibility during task-switching in obsessive-compulsive disorder. Brain 131, 155–164 (2008). source
• Not checked yetcites [93] Gruner, P. & Pittenger, C. Cognitive inflexibility in obsessive-compulsive disorder. Neuroscience 345, 243–255 (2017). source

In the paper

“Still, these types of nuanced measure of flexibility are not yet routinely used in transdiagnostic assessment settings, leaving several open questions as to the specific profile of executive function and flexibility deficits that characterize neurodevelopmental disorders.”

In the paper

“Some reports claim that executive dysfunction is more pervasive and more severe in ADHD than in ASD75, yet studies targeting flexibility document that children with ASD perform poorer on the WCST than do children with ADHD76.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [76] Sergeant, J. A., Geurts, H. & Oosterlaan, J. How specific is a deficit of executive functioning for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder? Behav. Brain Res. 130, 3–28 (2002). source

In the paper

“A recent review of neural mechanisms underlying cognitive and behavioural flexibility in autism additionally points to atypical patterns of L-FPN and M-CIN activation in response to task switching and set-shifting72.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [72] Uddin, L. Q. Brain mechanisms supporting flexible cognition and behavior in adolescents with autism spectrum disorder. Biol. Psychiatry 89, 172–183 (2021). source

In the paper

“One found evidence for shared and distinct patterns of intrinsic functional connectivity centrality in children with these disorders79.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [79] Di Martino, A. et al. Shared and distinct intrinsic functional network centrality in autism and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Biol. Psychiatry 74, 623–632 (2013). source

In the paper

“Data-driven techniques are now being used to identify key dimensions of functioning that overlap across diagnostic categories and also present heterogeneously within diagnostic categories81.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [81] Cordova, M. et al. Heterogeneity of executive function revealed by a functional random forest approach across ADHD and ASD. Neuroimage Clin. 26, 102245 (2020). source

In the paper

“l-DOPA withdrawal studies demonstrate that patients with Parkinson disease not receiving medication show inflexibility in the form of increased switch costs when switching between tasks108.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [108] Cools, R., Barker, R. A., Sahakian, B. J. & Robbins, T. W. L-Dopa medication remediates cognitive inflexibility, but increases impulsivity in patients with Parkinson’s disease. Neuropsychologia 41, 1431–1441 (2003). This study examining patients with Parkinson disease receiving and not receiving dopaminergic medication shows how dopamine influences cognitive flexibility performance. source

In the paper

“Cognitive stability — the opposite of cognitive flexibility — can likewise be beneficial during tasks requiring focused attention and distractor inhibition105.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [105] Ueltzhöffer, K., Armbruster-Genç, D. J. N. & Fiebach, C. J. Stochastic dynamics underlying cognitive stability and flexibility. PLoS Comput. Biol. 11, e1004331 (2015). source

In the paper

“A burgeoning functional neuroimaging literature including task-switching and set-shifting tasks adapted from neuropsychological assessments (most notably the WCST) investigates cognitive flexibility deficits in ageing and dementia, confirming the critical role of PFC recruitment in maintaining these functions101.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [101] McDonald, A. P., D’Arcy, R. C. N. & Song, X. Functional MRI on executive functioning in aging and dementia: a scoping review of cognitive tasks. Aging Med. 1, 209–219 (2018). source

In the paper

“One of the signs of dementia is heightened executive function impairment compared with that from normal ageing, including a deterioration of mental flexibility and the onset of cognitive rigidity.”

In the paper

“Flexibility deficits observed in Parkinson disease may result from dysfunction of frontostriatal loops resulting from dopamine depletion102.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [102] Robbins, T. W. & Cools, R. Cognitive deficits in Parkinson’s disease: a cognitive neuroscience perspective. Mov. Disord. 29, 597–607 (2014). source

In the paper

“Such models can help clarify how dedifferentiation observed at the network level, such as that proposed by the default–executive coupling hypothesis of ageing, can be seen as compensation for the decline of structural integrity in the ageing brain100.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [100] Naik, S., Banerjee, A., Bapi, R. S., Deco, G. & Roy, D. Metastability in senescence. Trends Cogn. Sci. 21, 509–521 (2017). source

In the paper

“Taken together, the literature on flexibility in ageing and dementia points to frontoparietal and frontostriatal dysfunction, as might be predicted from the human and animal research.”

In the paper

“Serotonin and striatal dopamine neurotransmitter systems have a modulatory role in reversal learning, as evidenced by human and animal lesion, stimulation and neuroimaging studies106.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [106] Clark, L., Cools, R. & Robbins, T. W. The neuropsychology of ventral prefrontal cortex: decision-making and reversal learning. Brain Cognition 55, 41–53 (2004). source

In the paper

“Thus, reduced flexibility may paradoxically be optimal under specific conditions.”

In the paper

“Whole-brain computational models permit quantification of metastability and recalibration processes underlying changes in cognitive performance over the lifespan.”

In the paper

“In humans, transient cerebral serotonin depletion affects processing of negative feedback during reversal learning107.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [107] Evers, E. A. T. et al. Serotonergic modulation of prefrontal cortex during negative feedback in probabilistic reversal learning. Neuropsychopharmacology 30, 1138–1147 (2005). source

In the paper

“Therefore, alterations in flexibility might in some cases represent normative adaptations to the perceived characteristics of the environment.”