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Food sharing is linked to urinary oxytocin levels and bonding in related and unrelated wild chimpanzees
Open accessAbstract
Humans excel in cooperative exchanges between unrelated individuals. Although this trait is fundamental to the success of our species, its evolution and mechanisms are poorly understood. Other social mammals also build long-term cooperative relationships between non-kin, and recent evidence shows that oxytocin, a hormone involved in parent–offspring bonding, is likely to facilitate non-kin as well as kin bonds. In a population of wild chimpanzees, we measured urinary oxytocin levels following a rare cooperative event—food sharing. Subjects showed higher urinary oxytocin levels after single food-sharing events compared with other types of social feeding, irrespective of previous social bond levels. Also, urinary oxytocin levels following food sharing were higher than following grooming, another cooperative behaviour. Therefore, food sharing in chimpanzees may play a key role in social bonding under the influence of oxytocin. We propose that food-sharing events co-opt neurobiological mechanisms evolved to support mother–infant bonding during lactation bouts, and may act as facilitators of bonding and cooperation between unrelated individuals via the oxytocinergic system across social mammals.
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TL;DR
In wild chimpanzees, urinary oxytocin was higher after food-sharing events than after social feeding without sharing, and higher after food sharing than after grooming. The authors propose that food sharing co-opts lactation-related oxytocin mechanisms to support bonding and cooperation among kin and non-kin.
Key findings
- Urinary oxytocin after food sharing was significantly higher than after non-sharing social feeding: mean log10 OT 1.407 ± 0.102 versus 0.884 ± 0.066 pg mg⁻¹ crea; F₁,₇₉ = 9.623, p = 0.003.
- Food sharing was associated with higher urinary oxytocin than grooming: mean log10 OT 1.41 ± 0.10 versus 0.99 ± 0.05 pg mg⁻¹ crea; F₁ = 16.496, p < 0.001; a within-subject subset also showed this difference (n = 9, Wilcoxon exact p = 0.035).
- Within food-sharing samples, oxytocin did not differ significantly by kin/non-kin, bond/non-bond, giving/receiving, meat/other food, or sex combination; models 2a and 2b did not explain variance better than null models. Food sharing with bond partners had the highest levels (1.42 ± 0.11 pg mg⁻¹ crea), significantly higher than grooming with bond partners (1.13 ± 0.07), but not significantly higher than food sharing with non-bond partners (1.36 ± 0.23).
- The study observed 42 food-sharing events in 2009; urine samples were obtained after 33 food-sharing and 46 social feeding events. Shared foods were meat (46%), fruit (30%), rotten wood pith (18%), and honey (6%).
Methods
- Observational field study of the Sonso community, Budongo Forest, Uganda, January 2009–July 2010; 79 urine samples from 26 chimpanzees (10 adult females, 3 subadult females, 6 adult males, 7 subadult males; mean 3.0 ± 1.97 samples per chimpanzee).
- Urine was collected 15–60 min after single food-sharing events or after 1 h of social feeding without sharing; oxytocin was measured by enzyme immunoassay and expressed as pg mg⁻¹ creatinine.
- Relationship quality was assessed with the Composite Relationship Index from focal/all-occurrence sampling; kinship was determined from faecal DNA; dominance was based on pant-grunts. Five generalized linear mixed models tested log10-transformed urinary oxytocin with subject, partner, and/or dyad identity as random factors.
Limitations
- Stated: models 2a and 2b had small sample sizes (n = 33), which may have reduced power and caused instability; there were relatively few food-sharing samples between non-bond partners; the relationship between central and peripheral oxytocin release remains unclear; and whether food sharing has a stronger bonding effect than grooming remains to be tested.
- Evident from the design: the study is correlational and observational, so it cannot establish causality between food sharing and oxytocin release; oxytocin was measured after events without baseline samples; and results come from one wild chimpanzee community, limiting generalization.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Subjects showed higher urinary oxytocin levels after single food-sharing events compared with other types of social feeding, irrespective of previous social bond levels.”
- Also stated in: § (b) Link between food sharing and urinary oxytocin levels · plain
“Urinary oxytocin concentrations after social feeding events were significantly higher with food sharing than without (F 1,79 ¼ 9.623, p ¼ 0.003, table 3 and figure 1; mean log 10 OT share + s.e.¼ 1.407 + 0.102 pg mg 21 crea versus mean log 10 OT non-share + s.e.¼ 0.884 + 0.066 pg mg 21 crea).”
- Also stated in: § 4. Discussion · boosted
“Our results provide empirical evidence that food-sharing events in chimpanzees are associated with significantly higher urinary oxytocin levels than non-sharing social feeding events.”
§ Food sharing is linked to urinary oxytocin levels and bonding in related and unrelated wild chimpanzees > Abstract
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes- Also stated in: § (b) Link between food sharing and urinary oxytocin levels · plain
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Also, urinary oxytocin levels following food sharing were higher than following grooming, another cooperative behaviour.”
- Also stated in: § (c) Comparison of urinary oxytocin levels following either food-sharing or grooming events · plain
“Urinary oxytocin levels following food-sharing events (mean log 10 OT + s.e.¼ 1.41 + 0.10 pg mg 21 crea) were significantly higher than following grooming events (mean log 10 OT + s.e.¼ 0.99 + 0.05 pg mg 21 crea; table 5a and figure 2a).”
§ Food sharing is linked to urinary oxytocin levels and bonding in related and unrelated wild chimpanzees > Abstract
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes- Also stated in: § (c) Comparison of urinary oxytocin levels following either food-sharing or grooming events · plain
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“bond or non-bond partners (bond: mean log 10 OT + s.e.¼ 1.42 + 0.11 pg mg 21 crea; nonbond: mean log 10 OT + s.e.¼ 1.36 + 0.23 pg mg 21 crea)”
§ Food sharing is linked to urinary oxytocin levels and bonding in related and unrelated wild chimpanzees > (b) Link between food sharing and urinary oxytocin levels
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesA result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Among non-kin food-sharing partners, three quarters of all donors were dominant.”
§ Food sharing is linked to urinary oxytocin levels and bonding in related and unrelated wild chimpanzees > (a) Characteristics of food-sharing events
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesA result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Less than 10% of the events sampled involved sharing between non-kin males and females in a possible meat-for-sex exchange context (table 2).”
§ Food sharing is linked to urinary oxytocin levels and bonding in related and unrelated wild chimpanzees > (a) Characteristics of food-sharing events
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesA result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“By contrast, urine collected after grooming with non-bond partners (mean log 10 OT + s.e.¼ 0.80 + 0.07 pg mg 21 crea) and after control events (mean log 10 OT + s.e.¼ 0.90 + 0.05 pg mg 21 crea) both showed the lowest urinary oxytocin levels (table 5b and figure 2b).”
§ Food sharing is linked to urinary oxytocin levels and bonding in related and unrelated wild chimpanzees > (c) Comparison of urinary oxytocin levels following either food-sharing or grooming events
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesA result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“When examining urinary oxytocin levels in association with the type of cooperative behaviour and quality of the relationship (model 3b), urine collected after food sharing between bond partners showed the highest oxytocin concentrations (mean log 10 OT + s.e.¼ 1.42 + 0.11 pg mg 21 crea; F 1,182 ¼ 9.821, p , 0.001).”
§ Food sharing is linked to urinary oxytocin levels and bonding in related and unrelated wild chimpanzees > (c) Comparison of urinary oxytocin levels following either food-sharing or grooming events
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“but was significantly higher than urinary oxytocin levels collected after grooming with bond partners (mean log 10 OT + s.e.¼ 1.13 + 0.07 pg mg 21 crea).”
§ Food sharing is linked to urinary oxytocin levels and bonding in related and unrelated wild chimpanzees > (c) Comparison of urinary oxytocin levels following either food-sharing or grooming events
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This was not significantly higher than urinary oxytocin levels collected after food sharing with non-bond partners (mean log 10 OT + s.e.¼ 1.36 + 0.23 pg mg 21 crea)”
§ Food sharing is linked to urinary oxytocin levels and bonding in related and unrelated wild chimpanzees > (c) Comparison of urinary oxytocin levels following either food-sharing or grooming events
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesA result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The full model explained the variation better than the null model (likelihood ratio test: x 2 ¼ 20.24, d.f.¼ 4, p , 0.002).”
§ Food sharing is linked to urinary oxytocin levels and bonding in related and unrelated wild chimpanzees > (b) Link between food sharing and urinary oxytocin levels
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- Probably not a substantial claim. 32
- It may state two separate claims as one. 29
- The quote only partly states this claim. 2
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“All food-sharing events sampled included begging behaviour by the receiver before receiving food from the donor.”
§ Food sharing is linked to urinary oxytocin levels and bonding in related and unrelated wild chimpanzees > (a) Characteristics of food-sharing events
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Neither models 2a or 2b explained the variation better than the null model (likelihood ratio test model 2a: x 2 ¼ 0.08, d.f.¼ 3, n.s.; model 2b: x 2 ¼ 6.24, d.f.¼ 5, n.s.).”
§ Food sharing is linked to urinary oxytocin levels and bonding in related and unrelated wild chimpanzees > (b) Link between food sharing and urinary oxytocin levels
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Controlling for the overall observation time per male or female, respectively, males showed an average sharing rate of 0.00187 h 21 and females showed an average sharing rate of 0.00176 h 21 .”
§ Food sharing is linked to urinary oxytocin levels and bonding in related and unrelated wild chimpanzees > (a) Characteristics of food-sharing events
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Potentially confounding variables, such as the sex or age of the subjects, or the monopolizability of the food, did not explain a significant amount of the variance in the urinary oxytocin levels (table 3).”
§ Food sharing is linked to urinary oxytocin levels and bonding in related and unrelated wild chimpanzees > (b) Link between food sharing and urinary oxytocin levels
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“None of the predictor variables tested in the univariate models reached significance (bond type: F 1,33 ¼ 0.074, p ¼ 0.787; CRI: F 1,33 ¼ 0.277, p ¼ 0.602; kin relationship: F 1,33 ¼ 0.020, p ¼ 0.888; sharing direction: F 1,33 ¼ 0.008, p ¼ 0.931; food category: F 1,33 ¼ 1.289, p ¼ 0.264; sex combination: F 2,33 ¼ 1.200, p ¼ 0.314), which showed that the lack of significance in models 2a and 2b was”
§ Food sharing is linked to urinary oxytocin levels and bonding in related and unrelated wild chimpanzees > (f ) Statistics
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In 25% of the cases, we sampled food sharing between unrelated males.”
§ Food sharing is linked to urinary oxytocin levels and bonding in related and unrelated wild chimpanzees > (a) Characteristics of food-sharing events
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In 2009, we observed 42 food-sharing events (without overt aggression occuring during the begging event) in the Sonso community.”
§ Food sharing is linked to urinary oxytocin levels and bonding in related and unrelated wild chimpanzees > (a) Characteristics of food-sharing events
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Food items shared were meat (46%), fruit (30%), rotten wood pith (18%) and honey (6%; electronic supplementary material, table S1).”
§ Food sharing is linked to urinary oxytocin levels and bonding in related and unrelated wild chimpanzees > (a) Characteristics of food-sharing events
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“and food was shared between females, males or between both sexes (F-F: mean log 10 OT + s.e.¼ 1.36 + 0.11 pg mg 21 crea; M-F: mean log 10 OT + s.e.¼ 1.57 + 0.17 pg mg 21 crea; M-M: mean log 10 OT + s.e.¼ 1.21 + 0.17 pg mg 21 crea).”
§ Food sharing is linked to urinary oxytocin levels and bonding in related and unrelated wild chimpanzees > (b) Link between food sharing and urinary oxytocin levels
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In the paper
“Also, it should be noted that in contrast to the Gombe field site (Tanzania) where the harassment avoidance hypothesis was examined [55], in Budongo we only observed low and not high harassment levels.”
§ Food sharing is linked to urinary oxytocin levels and bonding in related and unrelated wild chimpanzees > 4. Discussion
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [55] source
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Urine samples were obtained after 33 food-sharing and 46 social feeding events.”
§ Food sharing is linked to urinary oxytocin levels and bonding in related and unrelated wild chimpanzees > (a) Characteristics of food-sharing events
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“While the lower level of harassment did occur often, the highest level of harassment, the receiver placing his hand over the mouth of the donor, was never observed.”
§ Food sharing is linked to urinary oxytocin levels and bonding in related and unrelated wild chimpanzees > (a) Characteristics of food-sharing events
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“food share 1 9.623 0.003 share 0.427 3.102 0.003”
- Also stated in: § 4. Discussion · plain
“sex of subject 1 0.127 0.725 male 20.043 20.357 0.725 age of subject 1 ,0.000 0.989 adult 20.002 20.014 0.989 monopolizability of food 1 1.522 0.221 high 0.171 1.234 0.221”
§ Food sharing is linked to urinary oxytocin levels and bonding in related and unrelated wild chimpanzees > 4. Discussion
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
- Also stated in: § 4. Discussion · plain
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“food share 1 9.623 0.003 share 0.427 3.102 0.003”
§ Food sharing is linked to urinary oxytocin levels and bonding in related and unrelated wild chimpanzees > 4. Discussion
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one. The quote only partly states this claim.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Likelihood ratio test: x 2 ¼ 0.08, d.f.¼ 3, n.s.. (b) Model 2b-predictor variables and parameters entered in the model: food category (meat, not meat), sharing direction (subject: receiving, not receiving) sex combination (female-female, male -female, male -male).Likelihood ratio test: x 2 ¼ 6.24, d.f.¼ 5, n.s.; n ¼ 33 samples, 18 subjects.”
§ Food sharing is linked to urinary oxytocin levels and bonding in related and unrelated wild chimpanzees > (b) Oxytocin circuitry co-opted for non-kin cooperation hypothesis
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In the paper
“Physiologically, oxytocin acts in the brain by reducing anxiety and fear [19,20], enhancing social memory [16][17][18]21] and activating neural reward circuits [21].”
§ Food sharing is linked to urinary oxytocin levels and bonding in related and unrelated wild chimpanzees > 1. Introduction
What the sources say
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Such a link is also evident in chimpanzees, where grooming among bonding partners is associated with higher urinary oxytocin concentration than grooming between non-bonding partners [15].”
§ Food sharing is linked to urinary oxytocin levels and bonding in related and unrelated wild chimpanzees > 1. Introduction
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [15] source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We propose that food-sharing events co-opt neurobiological mechanisms evolved to support mother-infant bonding during lactation bouts, and may act as facilitators of bonding and cooperation between unrelated individuals via the oxytocinergic system across social mammals.”
§ Food sharing is linked to urinary oxytocin levels and bonding in related and unrelated wild chimpanzees > Abstract
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“When centrally administered, oxytocin enhances both affiliation with bonding partners and aversion to strangers in unrelated female voles [14].”
§ Food sharing is linked to urinary oxytocin levels and bonding in related and unrelated wild chimpanzees > 1. Introduction
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [14] source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Additionally, in humans, exogenously administered oxytocin enhances the encoding of social memory, both of positive [30] and negative [31] events, suggesting that higher oxytocin levels improve memorization of social interactions.”
§ Food sharing is linked to urinary oxytocin levels and bonding in related and unrelated wild chimpanzees > 1. Introduction
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In the paper
“In humans and other social mammals, the hormone oxytocin plays a central role in facilitating bonding between mother and offspring, and between mating partners [16][17][18].”
§ Food sharing is linked to urinary oxytocin levels and bonding in related and unrelated wild chimpanzees > 1. Introduction
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [16][17][18]
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Recent studies show that, in addition to humans, other social mammals form cooperative relationships between unrelated adults, which can last over months or years (chimpanzees [7], baboons [8,9] and feral horses [10]).”
§ Food sharing is linked to urinary oxytocin levels and bonding in related and unrelated wild chimpanzees > 1. Introduction
What the sources say
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“If exogenously administered, oxytocin enhances cooperative behaviour [22,23] between related animals, and behaviours associated with trust [24][25][26] and generosity [27] between unrelated humans.”
§ Food sharing is linked to urinary oxytocin levels and bonding in related and unrelated wild chimpanzees > 1. Introduction
What the sources say
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“In humans, the concentration of plasma oxytocin is related to the perceived closeness to [28] or support received by [29] a partner, suggesting a relation between higher oxytocin levels and stronger social bonding.”
§ Food sharing is linked to urinary oxytocin levels and bonding in related and unrelated wild chimpanzees > 1. Introduction
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What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We collected urine samples if subjects had engaged in no affiliative behaviours (e.g.grooming or copulation) other than the target behaviour in the hour prior to urination.”
§ Food sharing is linked to urinary oxytocin levels and bonding in related and unrelated wild chimpanzees > 2. Material and methods
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We therefore hypothesize that food sharing may be a key behaviour for social bonding in chimpanzees.”
§ Food sharing is linked to urinary oxytocin levels and bonding in related and unrelated wild chimpanzees > 4. Discussion
Tests✗ Asserted: fails✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The authors may not put it forward as true.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Food sharing in chimpanzees, however, is not restricted to meat but has also been reported with non-meat foods, for example honey [52], or large fruits such as Carica papaya [57] or Treculia africana [52].”
§ Food sharing is linked to urinary oxytocin levels and bonding in related and unrelated wild chimpanzees > 1. Introduction
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“To compensate for variation in urine concentration, we measured creatinine (crea) levels in each sample [66] and expressed all oxytocin values as pg mg 21 crea.”
§ Food sharing is linked to urinary oxytocin levels and bonding in related and unrelated wild chimpanzees > (c) Urine sampling and oxytocin extraction
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [66] source
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“In both conditions, samples were not collected if grooming or copulation also occurred within 60 min prior to urination, as both of these behaviours are likely to independently increase urinary oxytocin levels [39].”
§ Food sharing is linked to urinary oxytocin levels and bonding in related and unrelated wild chimpanzees > (c) Urine sampling and oxytocin extraction
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [39] source
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
In the paper
“Variables did not exhibit problems of collinearity [68] (Kendall's t and Spearman's r , 0.7 in all cases).”
§ Food sharing is linked to urinary oxytocin levels and bonding in related and unrelated wild chimpanzees > (f ) Statistics
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [68]
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Significantly, peripheral measures of oxytocin from plasma or urine correlate positively with psychological and behavioural patterns, such as aversion reduction in male mice [19], social contact in marmosets [40], lactation in rhesus macaques [41], rates of affiliative behaviours in pair-bonded tamarins [42] and grooming in closely bonded chimpanzees [15], indicating that peripheral oxytocin level”
§ Food sharing is linked to urinary oxytocin levels and bonding in related and unrelated wild chimpanzees > 1. Introduction
What the sources say
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“As in some species, low testosterone is linked to nurturance (i.e.behaviours that involve gentle warm contact with others) [70] and high oxytocin is linked to social bonding [70], and together these results suggest that food sharing might provide the optimal conditions for social bonding (see [70]).”
§ Food sharing is linked to urinary oxytocin levels and bonding in related and unrelated wild chimpanzees > 4. Discussion
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [70] source
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“As models 2a and 2b investigated many predictor variables relative to the number of cases (n ¼ 33, d.f.¼ 3 or d.f.¼ 5), reduced power may have led to false negatives (i.e.erroneously non-significant effects), as well as some risk of instability in the derived estimates.”
§ Food sharing is linked to urinary oxytocin levels and bonding in related and unrelated wild chimpanzees > (f ) Statistics
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:conditional· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Food sharing between unrelated individuals outside the mating context is rare but has been reported for humans, vampire bats, chimpanzees and bonobos [13,46,48,49,52].”
§ Food sharing is linked to urinary oxytocin levels and bonding in related and unrelated wild chimpanzees > 1. Introduction
What the sources say
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“In most species, food sharing occurs between kin, such as parents provisioning their offspring (birds [44], mammals [45,47,49]), or between mating partners (insects [44], birds [43], mammals [45,47,50], humans [51]).”
§ Food sharing is linked to urinary oxytocin levels and bonding in related and unrelated wild chimpanzees > 1. Introduction
What the sources say
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Five outliers (more than 2 s.d.) were excluded from the foodsharing dataset (three non-sharing and two sharing samples) to be sure that they were not driving any main effects.”
§ Food sharing is linked to urinary oxytocin levels and bonding in related and unrelated wild chimpanzees > (f ) Statistics
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedn = 2Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“In chimpanzees and vampire bats, food sharing typically occurs between individuals that also engage in other cooperative behaviours at higher rates, such as grooming and providing coalitionary support [13,49,[52][53][54].”
§ Food sharing is linked to urinary oxytocin levels and bonding in related and unrelated wild chimpanzees > 1. Introduction
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [13,49,[52][53][54]
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In sum, higher oxytocin concentrations may be related to better cooperation via stronger bonding and better social memory.”
§ Food sharing is linked to urinary oxytocin levels and bonding in related and unrelated wild chimpanzees > 1. Introduction
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Methodologically important is the fact that oxytocin not only acts within the brain, but is also released into the peripheral circulation before being excreted in urine, although the exact nature of the relationship between central and peripheral releases have yet to be clarified [34][35][36][37][38][39].”
§ Food sharing is linked to urinary oxytocin levels and bonding in related and unrelated wild chimpanzees > 1. Introduction
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [34][35][36][37][38][39]
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Indeed, the possibility that food sharing may serve several functions in chimpanzees seems supported by several studies [61,72].”
§ Food sharing is linked to urinary oxytocin levels and bonding in related and unrelated wild chimpanzees > 4. Discussion
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:conditional· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Also, as oxytocin is thought to act on positive feedback circuits [16,17,21], sharers may experience a mutual increase in positive attitude [15,79,80], resulting in the promotion of stronger social bonds and longer-term benefits of more frequent cooperation [23,26,80].”
§ Food sharing is linked to urinary oxytocin levels and bonding in related and unrelated wild chimpanzees > (b) Oxytocin circuitry co-opted for non-kin cooperation hypothesis
What the sources say
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“This positive feedback circuitry is considered a key mechanism for bond formation between mother and infant [34,75].”
§ Food sharing is linked to urinary oxytocin levels and bonding in related and unrelated wild chimpanzees > (a) Food-sharing -lactation hypothesis
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
In the paper
“In some mammals, maternal care and provisioning of food, however, aids infant survival beyond the age of lactation [75].”
§ Food sharing is linked to urinary oxytocin levels and bonding in related and unrelated wild chimpanzees > (a) Food-sharing -lactation hypothesis
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [75] source
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Such links between food sharing and long-term benefits have been described on a behavioural level for chimpanzees reciprocally sharing meat [7,78], and exchanging meat for sex [50] or agonistic support [54].”
§ Food sharing is linked to urinary oxytocin levels and bonding in related and unrelated wild chimpanzees > (b) Oxytocin circuitry co-opted for non-kin cooperation hypothesis
What the sources say
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“suggesting that both perceived the interaction positively [70].”
§ Food sharing is linked to urinary oxytocin levels and bonding in related and unrelated wild chimpanzees > 4. Discussion
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [70] source
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“It is thought that the interface between oxytocin and the dopaminergic reward system may contribute to the success of mother-infant and pair-bonding processes [18,[75][76][77].”
§ Food sharing is linked to urinary oxytocin levels and bonding in related and unrelated wild chimpanzees > (a) Food-sharing -lactation hypothesis
What the sources say
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“This link between food sharing and oxytocin found in chimpanzees may also be relevant for humans [70], where pro-social behaviour has often been linked to food sharing and provisioning [46,81,82].”
§ Food sharing is linked to urinary oxytocin levels and bonding in related and unrelated wild chimpanzees > (b) Oxytocin circuitry co-opted for non-kin cooperation hypothesis
What the sources say
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✗ Checkable: fails✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Food sharing may, in effect, act as a trigger and predictor of cooperative relationships.”
§ Food sharing is linked to urinary oxytocin levels and bonding in related and unrelated wild chimpanzees > (b) Oxytocin circuitry co-opted for non-kin cooperation hypothesis
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“and is well known to be connected to peripheral and central oxytocin release in mammals [34,74].”
§ Food sharing is linked to urinary oxytocin levels and bonding in related and unrelated wild chimpanzees > (a) Food-sharing -lactation hypothesis
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
In the paper
“In mammals, lactation has been described as the primary form of food sharing [73]”
§ Food sharing is linked to urinary oxytocin levels and bonding in related and unrelated wild chimpanzees > (a) Food-sharing -lactation hypothesis
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [73] source
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“What makes food sharing in chimpanzees unusual in the animal kingdom is that, as well as occurring between kin [52] and in sexual contexts [50], food sharing also occurs between non-kin adults in non-sexual contexts [13,15,52,53].”
§ Food sharing is linked to urinary oxytocin levels and bonding in related and unrelated wild chimpanzees > (b) Oxytocin circuitry co-opted for non-kin cooperation hypothesis
What the sources say
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
The paper relies on this without support.
Baseline urinary oxytocin levels before food-sharing events do not differ systematically from those before non-sharing social feeding events.
“Our target behaviours were single food-sharing events or 1 h of feeding in the presence of chimpanzees without sharing food.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Unmeasured factors do not confound the association between food sharing and urinary oxytocin levels.
“Thus, our results suggest a direct link between food-sharing events and urinary oxytocin levels.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The food-sharing events observed in the Sonso community are representative of food sharing in wild chimpanzees.
“We therefore hypothesize that food sharing may be a key behaviour for social bonding in chimpanzees.”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
In the citing paper
“Also similar to humans, the oxytocinergic system in chimpanzees is involved in prosocial and cooperative behavior between both kin and nonkin group members, such as grooming (19) and food sharing (20), suggesting parallels in oxytocinergic system involvement between humans and chimpanzees.”
From Oxytocin reactivity during intergroup conflict in wild chimpanzees (2017) · cites this paper as [20]
In the citing paper
“All samples relating to a target context were collected within the time window of oxytocin excretion into urine at least 15 min after the start and up to 60 min after the end of interactions (19, 20).”
From Oxytocin reactivity during intergroup conflict in wild chimpanzees (2017) · cites this paper as [20]
In the citing paper
“We conducted focal animal sampling (23) for 20 adult male and female chimpanzees of two neighboring groups, and measured the oxytocin concentration of urine samples from all individuals using an established method to sample specific events (19, 20).”
From Oxytocin reactivity during intergroup conflict in wild chimpanzees (2017) · cites this paper as [20]
In the citing paper
“We took the clearance of oxytocin into urine in chimpanzees to be 15 to 60 min after secretion (19, 20), adapted from a human clearance study (43).”
From Oxytocin reactivity during intergroup conflict in wild chimpanzees (2017) · cites this paper as [20]
In the citing paper
“Urinary oxytocin measures show biobehaviorally relevant levels following target behaviors or social interactions that occur within this time window (19, 20).”
From Oxytocin reactivity during intergroup conflict in wild chimpanzees (2017) · cites this paper as [20]
In the citing paper
“The effects were similar whether subjects were donors or recipients of grooming or food sharing, and whether donors and receivers were male or female.”
From Endogenous peripheral oxytocin measures can give insight into the dynamics of social relationships: a review (2014) · cites this paper as Wittig et al., 2014
In the citing paper
“In the context of food sharing in wild chimpanzees, urine samples following naturally-occurring food sharing events had low testosterone levels (Sobolewski et al., 2012) and high oxytocin levels (Wittig et al., 2014).”
From Endogenous peripheral oxytocin measures can give insight into the dynamics of social relationships: a review (2014) · cites this paper as Wittig et al., 2014
In the citing paper
“Two cooperative behaviors, allo-grooming and food sharing, were associated with significantly higher urinary oxytocin levels than non-cooperative behaviors, feeding in the presence of others without sharing, or resting.”
From Endogenous peripheral oxytocin measures can give insight into the dynamics of social relationships: a review (2014) · cites this paper as Wittig et al., 2014
In the citing paper
“In the food sharing context, however, urinary oxytocin levels were high irrespective of the valence of the relationship between sharing partners.”
From Endogenous peripheral oxytocin measures can give insight into the dynamics of social relationships: a review (2014) · cites this paper as Wittig et al., 2014
In the citing paper
“Food sharing, a relatively rare behavior, was associated with significantly higher urinary oxytocin levels than grooming with bond partners (Wittig et al., 2014).”
From Endogenous peripheral oxytocin measures can give insight into the dynamics of social relationships: a review (2014) · cites this paper as Wittig et al., 2014
In the citing paper
“In chimpanzees, food sharing between adults is associated with high urinary oxytocin levels (Wittig et al., 2014).”
From Endogenous peripheral oxytocin measures can give insight into the dynamics of social relationships: a review (2014) · cites this paper as Wittig et al., 2014
In the citing paper
“non-invasive sampling allows repeated measures to be examined in relation to particular social interactions or individuals within the subjects' normal social and physical environment (Holt-Lunstad et al., 2008; Crockford et al., 2013; Wittig et al., 2014).”
From Endogenous peripheral oxytocin measures can give insight into the dynamics of social relationships: a review (2014) · cites this paper as Wittig et al., 2014
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.
Model 3b behavioural-context test has conflicting degrees of freedom
MinorThe results report F with 1 numerator degree of freedom for the five-context comparison, whereas Table 5b reports 4 degrees of freedom for the same behavioural-context test with F = 9.821.
“F 1,182 ¼ 9.821, p , 0.001”
“| behavioural context | 4 | 9.821 | <0.001 | control | 20.51 | 24.667 | <0.001 |”
Model 2a predictors differ between the table caption and results
MinorThe Table 4 caption lists sex combination as a Model 2a predictor, but the Model 2a results list sharing direction instead. The reported three predictor degrees of freedom correspond to the three variables in the results, not to both variables.
“(a) Model 2a-predictor variables and parameters entered in the model: bond type (bond, non-bond), kin relationship (kin, non-kin), sex combination (female-female, male -female, male -male).”
“| sharing direction | 1 | 0.004 | 0.951 | receiving | 20.013 | 20.062 | 0.951 |”
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Metadata
- Authors
- Wittig, R. M., Crockford, C., Deschner, T., Langergraber, K. E., Ziegler, T. E., & Zuberbühler, K.
- Affiliations
- Max Planck Society (DE)
- Boston University (US)
- University of Wisconsin–Madison (US)
- University of St Andrews (GB)
- Corresponding author
- Wittig, Roman M.
- Crockford, Catherine
- ORCID
- Venue
- Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences
- Publisher
- The Royal Society
- Published
- 2014-03-07
- Volume
- 281
- Issue
- 1778
- Pages
- 20133096
- ISSN
- 0080-4649 (ISSN-L)
- 0962-8452
- 1471-2954
- PMC
- PMC3906952
- OpenAlex
- W2123761254
- Cited by
- 235
- References
- 87
- Citations by year
- 2026: 4 · 2025: 13 · 2024: 20 · 2023: 11 · 2022: 20 · 2021: 14 · 2020: 17 · 2019: 29 · 2018: 16 · 2017: 28 · 2016: 33 · 2015: 19 · 2014: 8
- FWCI
- 43.40
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Proceedings of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Max Planck Digital Library (submittedVersion)
- MPG.PuRe (Max Planck Society) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- Wenner-Gren Foundation
- Royal Zoological Society of Scotland
- Leverhulme Trust
- British Academy
- Max-Planck-Institut für Evolutionäre Anthropologie
- National Institutes of Health (P51OD011106)
- U.S. Public Health Service (NCRR000167)
- National Center for Research Resources
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Agricultural and Biological Sciences › Ecology, Evolution, Behavior and Systematics › Primate Behavior and Ecology
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Endocrine and Autonomic Systems › Neuroendocrine regulation and behavior
- Life Sciences › Agricultural and Biological Sciences › Ecology, Evolution, Behavior and Systematics › Animal Behavior and Reproduction
- Keywords
- food sharing, social bonding, chimpanzees, non-kin cooperation, grooming, oxytocinergic system, social evolution, cooperative behavior
- MeSH terms
- Animals, Pan troglodytes, Cooperative Behavior, Feeding Behavior, Female, Grooming, Male, Object Attachment, Oxytocin
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