Effect of Exercise on Depression
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The size of the effect of exercise compared with no treatment in the studies analysed is similar to those found by three previous meta-analyses.
“The size of the effect of exercise compared with no treatment in the studies we analysed is similar to those found by three previous meta-analyses.[9][10][11]”
Three meta-analyses have looked at the effect of exercise on depression, and all found a benefit.
“Three meta-analyses have looked at the effect of exercise on depression, and all found a benefit.[9][10][11]”
Previous meta-analyses pooled data from a range of study types including uncontrolled studies and randomised as well as non-randomised controlled trials; pooled exercise versus no treatment with exercise versus other treatments; and did not explicitly assess study quality.
“However, these analyses pooled data from a range of study types that included uncontrolled studies and randomised as well as non-randomised controlled trials.They also pooled data from trials that compared exercise and no treatment with data from trials that compared exercise and other forms of treatment, and they did not explicitly assess the quality of the studies.”
Three of these reviews pooled data from a range of study types that included uncontrolled studies and randomised as well as non-randomised controlled trials, and pooled data from trials that compared exercise and no treatment with data from trials that compared exercise and other forms of treatment.
“However, three of these reviews pooled data from a range of study types that included uncontrolled studies and randomised as well as non-randomised controlled trials, and pooled data from trials that compared exercise and no treatment with data from trials that compared exercise and other forms of treatment (Craft 1998;Carlson 1991;North 1990).”
From Exercise for depression (2009) · cites this paper as North 1990
Several meta-analyses have looked at the effect of exercise on depression and all found that exercise was of benefit.
“Several meta-analyses (Craft 1998;Carlson 1991;North 1990;Lawlor 2001;Stathopoulou 2006;Sjosten 2006) have looked at the effect of exercise on depression and all found that exercise was of benefit.”
From Exercise for depression (2009) · cites this paper as North 1990
Previous systematic reviews that found exercise improved depression included uncontrolled trials, so their results are probably biased in favour of exercise.
“Previous systematic reviews which found that exercise improved depression included uncontrolled trials (North 1990;Craft 1998;Carlson 1991, so the results of these reviews are probably biased in favour of exercise.”
From Exercise for depression (2009) · cites this paper as North 1990
In previous meta-analyses, the length of exercise was the only characteristic related to the effect size for depression treatment, and 9-12 weeks were associated with the largest reduction.
“This was partly consistent with previous meta-analyses in which the length of exercise was the only characteristic related to the effect size for depression treatment [168, 169], and where 9–12 weeks were associated with the largest reduction.”
From Comparative Effectiveness of Multiple Exercise Interventions in the Treatment of Mental Health Disorders: A Systematic Review and Network Meta-Analysis (2022) · cites this paper as [169]
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“Depression Evidence from adult studies demonstrates that physical activity is inversely associated with symptoms of depression [8, 9] and there is some evidence that this relationship is causal [10].”
BackgroundMethodWRITING COMMITTEE MEMBERS, Hunt, S. A., Abraham, W. T., Chin, M. H., Feldman, A. M., Francis, G. S., Ganiats, T. G., Jessup, M., Konstam, M. A., Mancini, D. M., et al. (2005) · Circulation · doi:10.1161/circulationaha.105.167586 · Cited by 2,251 · see citing works
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Paluska, S. A., & Schwenk, T. L. (2000) · Sports Medicine · doi:10.2165/00007256-200029030-00003 · Cited by 1,722 · see citing works
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Medicine & science in sports & exercise
Walle, J. M. L., Solá, I. B., Castillo, I., & Rodríguez, J. L. T. (1994) · Journal of the American Dietetic Association · doi:10.1016/0002-8223(94)92575-5 · Cited by 1,309 · see citing works
Physical activity, exercise, depression and anxiety disorders
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“North et al. (1990) analyzed 80 studies and reported an effect size (ES) of -0.53, indicating that exercise training reduced depression scores by approximately one half a standard deviation as compared to the comparison groups; an even larger effect size (-0.94) was reported in clinical populations…”
ResultInfluentialThe Effects of Stress on Physical Activity and Exercise
Stults-Kolehmainen, M. A., & Sinha, R. (2014) · Sports Medicine · doi:10.1007/s40279-013-0090-5 · Cited by 1,192 · see citing works
“In the face of stress, one may elect to obviate feelings of displeasure by engaging in exercise, a form of emotionfocused coping [62, 168, 378].”
Mazzeo, R. S., Cavanagh, P. R., Evans, W. J., FIATARONE, M. A., Hagberg, J. M., McAuley, E., & Startzell, J. (1998) · Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise · doi:10.1097/00005768-199806000-00033 · Cited by 1,192 · see citing works
Exercise Treatment for Major Depression: Maintenance of Therapeutic Benefit at 10 Months
Babyak, M., Blumenthal, J. A., Herman, S., Khatri, P., Doraiswamy, M., Moore, K., Edward Craighead, W., Baldewicz, T. T., & Ranga Krishnan, K. (2000) · Psychosomatic Medicine · doi:10.1097/00006842-200009000-00006 · Cited by 1,063 · see citing works
“In addition, exercise may have a number of psychological benefits (7, 8), and it has been suggested as a potential treatment for a variety of psychiatric conditions, especially depression (9, 10).”
BackgroundCooney, G. M., Dwan, K., Greig, C. A., Lawlor, D. A., Rimer, J., Waugh, F. R., McMurdo, M., & Mead, G. E. (2013) · Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews · doi:10.1002/14651858.cd004366.pub6 · Cited by 1,834 · see citing works
Exercise and Pharmacotherapy in the Treatment of Major Depressive Disorder
Blumenthal, J. A., Babyak, M. A., Doraiswamy, P. M., Watkins, L., Hoffman, B. M., Barbour, K. A., Herman, S., Craighead, W. E., Brosse, A. L., Waugh, R., et al. (2007) · Psychosomatic Medicine · doi:10.1097/psy.0b013e318148c19a · Cited by 1,019 · see citing works
“Our overall findings are generally consistent with several meta-analytic reviews that suggested that exercise may be an effective treatment for depression (22-24).”
BackgroundResultNetz, Y., Wu, M.-J., Becker, B. J., & Tenenbaum, G. (2005) · Psychology and Aging · doi:10.1037/0882-7974.20.2.272 · Cited by 1,012 · see citing works
“, 1991) and depression (North et al., 1990).”
MethodLawlor, D. A., & Hopker, S. W. (2001) · BMJ · doi:10.1136/bmj.322.7289.763 · Cited by 995 · see citing works
Exercise for the Treatment of Depression
Knapen, J., Vancampfort, D., Schoubs, B., Probst, M.-T., Sienaert, P. A., Haake, P., Peuskens, J., & Pieters, G. (2009) · The Open Complementary Medicine Journal · doi:10.2174/1876391x00901010078 · Cited by 911 · see citing works
“94) was reported in clinical populations [32].”
Health-enhancing physical activity and sedentary behaviour in children and adolescents
Biddle, S., Gorely, T., & Stensel, D. J. (2004) · Journal of Sports Sciences · doi:10.1080/02640410410001712412 · Cited by 910 · see citing works
“North et al. (1990) reported an effect size for exercise and reduced depression of 0.49 (K=5) for those under 18 years, compared with an overall effect size of 0.53 (K=290) across all ages.”
BackgroundInfluentialWhooley, M. A. (2008) · JAMA · doi:10.1001/jama.2008.711 · Cited by 887 · see citing works
“64, 73–75 To the extent that physical inactivity precedes depression, it would be acting as a confounder rather than as a mediator of the association between depression and cardiovascular events.”
PHYSICAL ACTIVITY AND MENTAL HEALTH: THE ASSOCIATION BETWEEN EXERCISE AND MOOD
Peluso, M. A. M., & Andrade, L. H. (2005) · Clinics · doi:10.1590/s1807-59322005000100012 · Cited by 804 · see citing works
Physical exercise and psychological well being: a critical review.
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The benefits of exercise for the clinically depressed
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Physical Activity in Aging: Changes in Patterns and Their Relationship to Health and Function
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International Journal of Nursing Practice
Helen, P., Phd, E., Armstrong, C. K., & Kelvin Grove, Q. (2010) · International Journal of Nursing Practice · doi:10.1111/(issn)1440-172x · Cited by 531 · see citing works
Exercise and the Treatment of Clinical Depression in Adults: Recent Findings and Future Directions
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“These conclusions are consistent with three recent metaanalyses.[134-136] In the most recent meta-analysis, Lawlor and Hopker[135] found that exercise was associated with a greater reduction in depressive symptoms when compared with no treatment, and was as effective as cognitive therapy.”
ResultRegular exercise, anxiety, depression and personality: a population-based study
De Moor, M. H. M., Beem, A. L., Stubbe, J. H., Boomsma, D. I., & De Geus, E. J. C. (2006) · Preventive Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.ypmed.2005.12.002 · Cited by 493 · see citing works
“The relationship between exercise behavior and mental health has been examined by many researchers (Byrne and Byrne, 1993; Folkins and Sime, 1981; Gauvin and Spence, 1996; North et al., 1990; Salmon, 2000; Scully et al., 1998).”
BackgroundYoga for depression: the research evidence
Pilkington, K., Kirkwood, G., Rampes, H., & Richardson, J. (2005) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2005.08.013 · Cited by 495 · see citing works
Physical exercise intervention in depressive disorders: Meta‐analysis and systematic review
Josefsson, T., Lindwall, M., & Archer, T. (2014) · Scandinavian Journal of Medicine & Science in Sports · doi:10.1111/sms.12050 · Cited by 483 · see citing works
“However, the results from the present metaanalysis as well as from seven earlier meta-analyses (North et al., 1990; Craft & Landers, 1998; Lawlor & Hopker, 2001; Stathopoulou et al., 2006; Mead et al., 2009; Rethorst et al., 2009; Krogh et al., 2011) indicate that exercise has a moderate to large…”
BackgroundResultInfluentialExercise comes of age: rationale and recommendations for a geriatric exercise prescription
Singh, M. A. F. (2002) · The Journals of Gerontology Series A: Biological Sciences and Medical Sciences · doi:10.1093/gerona/57.5.m262 · Cited by 485 · see citing works
“It is notable that effects are most significant in those with comorbid illness, such as cardiovascular or pulmonary disease (132) or major depression (130,134–137), attesting to the clinical relevance of this exercise adaptation.”
BackgroundSingh, N. A., Stavrinos, T. M., Scarbek, Y., Galambos, G., Liber, C., & Fiatarone Singh, M. A. (2005) · The Journals of Gerontology Series A: Biological Sciences and Medical Sciences · doi:10.1093/gerona/60.6.768 · Cited by 470 · see citing works
“Our two exercise groups performed exercises that differed only in intensity, yet only the high intensity group achieved clinically significant benefits ( 29 ).”
BackgroundMethodBray, S. R., & Born, H. A. (2004) · Journal of American College Health · doi:10.3200/jach.52.4.181-188 · Cited by 461 · see citing works
Acute Aerobic Exercise and Affect
Panteleimon Ekkekakis, A., & Petruzzello, S. J. (1999) · Sports Medicine · doi:10.2165/00007256-199928050-00005 · Cited by 434 · see citing works
“[83,84] In the meta-analysis by North et al.[32] on the effect of exercise on depression, acute and chronic effects were not analysed separately.”
BackgroundCompulsive exercise and eating disorders
Meyer, C., Taranis, L., Goodwin, H., & Haycraft, E. (2011) · European Eating Disorders Review · doi:10.1002/erv.1122 · Cited by 433 · see citing works
The profile of mood states and athletic performance: Two meta-analyses
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Callaghan, P. (2004) · Journal of Psychiatric and Mental Health Nursing · doi:10.1111/j.1365-2850.2004.00751.x · Cited by 409 · see citing works
Cardiovascular fitness is associated with cognition in young adulthood
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Singh, N. A., Clements, K. M., & Singh, M. A. F. (2001) · The Journals of Gerontology Series A: Biological Sciences and Medical Sciences · doi:10.1093/gerona/56.8.m497 · Cited by 346 · see citing works
“The efficacy of exercise as an alternative treatment in clinically depressed young or middle-aged patients has been established in at least eight randomized controlled trials of varying duration (4).”
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“There have been several mechanisms offered as possible explanations for the effect that physical activity has on depression (North et al., 1990).”
BackgroundMarkowitz, S. M., Friedman, M. A., & Arent, S. M. (2008) · Clinical Psychology Science and Practice · doi:10.1111/j.1468-2850.2008.00106.x · Cited by 339 · see citing works
The Effects of Exercise on Mood in Older Adults: A Meta-Analytic Review
Arent, S. M., Landers, D. M., & Etnier, J. L. (2000) · Journal of Aging and Physical Activity · doi:10.1123/japa.8.4.407 · Cited by 336 · see citing works
Schmidt, M., Jäger, K., Egger, F., Roebers, C. M., & Conzelmann, A. (2015) · Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology · doi:10.1123/jsep.2015-0069 · Cited by 329 · see citing works
“performance, as suggested by the cardiovascular fitness hypothesis (North et al., 1990).”
BackgroundExercise and depression: A review of reviews
Daley, A. (2008) · Journal of Clinical Psychology in Medical Settings · doi:10.1007/s10880-008-9105-z · Cited by 324 · see citing works
“…of Treatment Effects Craft and Perna (2004) attempted to translate the effect sizes from three meta-analyses (Craft & Landers, 1998; Lawlor & Hopker, 2001; North et al., 1990) of exercise and depression to a binominal effect size to allow interpretation in terms of clinical significance.”
BackgroundAzevedo Da Silva, M., Singh-Manoux, A., Brunner, E. J., Kaffashian, S., Shipley, M. J., Kivimäki, M., & Nabi, H. (2012) · European Journal of Epidemiology · doi:10.1007/s10654-012-9692-8 · Cited by 324 · see citing works
“The self-efficacy/mastery hypothesis [36] suggests that physical activity could be seen as a challenging activity, the ability of individuals to be physically active on a regular basis may lead to improvements in their mood and self-confidence.”
BackgroundThe Exercise-Induced Feeling Inventory: Development and Initial Validation
Gauvin, L. I., & Rejeski, W. J. (1993) · Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology · doi:10.1123/jsep.15.4.403 · Cited by 318 · see citing works
Benefits from aerobic exercise in patients with major depression: a pilot study
Dimeo, F., Bauer, M., Varahram, I., Proest, G., & Halter, U. (2001) · British Journal of Sports Medicine · doi:10.1136/bjsm.35.2.114 · Cited by 310 · see citing works
“Despite these problems, most of the evidence indicates positive effects of physical activity on mood. Two meta-analyses suggest that exercise may be as effective as psychotherapy”
BackgroundEffects of Acute Exercise on Mood and Well-Being in Patients with Major Depressive Disorder
Bartholomew, J. B., MORRISON, D., & Ciccolo, J. T. (2005) · Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise · doi:10.1249/01.mss.0000178101.78322.dd · Cited by 307 · see citing works
“There is a growing recognition and acceptance of chronic exercise as a useful treatment modality for depression (8,12,30).”
BackgroundTesting Causality in the Association Between Regular Exercise and Symptoms of Anxiety and Depression
De Moor, M. H. M., Boomsma, D. I., Stubbe, J. H., Willemsen, G., & de Geus, E. J. C. (2008) · Archives of General Psychiatry · doi:10.1001/archpsyc.65.8.897 · Cited by 299 · see citing works
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Depressive Symptom Outcomes of Physical Activity Interventions: Meta-analysis Findings
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“59 ES for non-depressed subjects reported in 1990 [14].”
BackgroundResultInfluentialThe Effects of Acute and Chronic Exercise on Sleep
Kubitz, K. A., Landers, D. M., Petruzzello, S. J., & Han, M.-W. (1996) · Sports Medicine · doi:10.2165/00007256-199621040-00004 · Cited by 285 · see citing works
The Subjective Exercise Experiences Scale (SEES): Development and Preliminary Validation
MeAuley, E., & Courneya, K. S. (1994) · Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology · doi:10.1123/jsep.16.2.163 · Cited by 281 · see citing works
“…responses are typically overlooked as outcomes of physical activity participation, with much of the empirical attention focused upon exercise's ability to reduce anxiety, depression, and other stress-related emotions (see Hughes, 1984; North et al., 1990; Petruzzello et al., 1991, for reviews).”
Exercise and clinical depression: examining two psychological mechanisms
Craft, L. L. (2005) · Psychology of Sport and Exercise · doi:10.1016/j.psychsport.2003.11.003 · Cited by 253 · see citing works
Effectiveness of complementary and self‐help treatments for depression
Jorm, A. F., Christensen, H. M., Griffiths, K. M., & Rodgers, B. (2002) · The Medical Journal of Australia · doi:10.5694/j.1326-5377.2002.tb04508.x · Cited by 247 · see citing works
The effect of regular aerobic exercise on positive-activated affect: A meta-analysis
Reed, J., & Buck, S. (2009) · Psychology of sport and exercise · doi:10.1016/j.psychsport.2009.05.009 · Cited by 246 · see citing works
“Program duration The literature supports program duration as a moderator of the effect of regular exercise on self-reported anxiety (Petruzzello et al., 1991) and depression (Craft & Landers, 1998; North et al., 1990) with larger effects for programs at least nine or ten weeks in length.”
BackgroundResultInfluentialRimer, J., Dwan, K., Lawlor, D. A., Greig, C. A., McMurdo, M., Morley, W., & Mead, G. E. (2012) · Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews · doi:10.1002/14651858.cd004366.pub5 · Cited by 330 · see citing works
Effects of chronic exercise on feelings of energy and fatigue: A quantitative synthesis.
Puetz, T. W., O’Connor, P. J., & Dishman, R. K. (2006) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.132.6.866 · Cited by 236 · see citing works
“Given that symptoms of fatigue and depression often coexist, it is intriguing that significantly larger improvements in depression symptom scores have been reported following strength training compared with aerobic exercise training (North et al., 1990; Singh et al., 1997).”
Aerobic endurance exercise benefits memory and affect in young adults.
Stroth, S., Hille, K., Spitzer, M., & Reinhardt, R. (2009) · Neuropsychological Rehabilitation · doi:10.1080/09602010802091183 · Cited by 232 · see citing works
“…effect of exercise on affect within the general population show that training regimens lasting 10–12 weeks resulted in larger effect sizes for depression than were found for shorter periods of exercise; regimens lasting more than 15 weeks resulted in the greatest effect size (North et al., 1990).”
BackgroundRedondo, J. R., Justo, C. M., Moraleda, F. V., Velayos, Y. G., Puche, J. J. O., Zubero, J. R., Hernández, T. G., Ortells, L. C., & Pareja, M. Á. V. (2004) · Arthritis Care & Research · doi:10.1002/art.20252 · Cited by 229 · see citing works
“For example, low mood (17), depressive symptoms (42), and anxiety (43), which are frequent in patients with FM, are known to improve with PE.”
BackgroundMead, G. E., Morley, W., Campbell, P., Greig, C. A., McMurdo, M., & Lawlor, D. A. (2009) · Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews · doi:10.1002/14651858.cd004366.pub4 · Cited by 364 · see citing works
Knubben, K., Reischies, F. M., Adli, M., Schlattmann, P., Bauer, M., & Dimeo, F. (2007) · British Journal of Sports Medicine · doi:10.1136/bjsm.2006.030130 · Cited by 226 · see citing works
The Effect of Exercise on Global Self-Esteem: A Quantitative Review
Spence, J. C., McGannon, K. R., & Poon, P. (2005) · Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology · doi:10.1123/jsep.27.3.311 · Cited by 225 · see citing works
Suman-Vejas, O. E., Spies, R. J., Celis, M. M., Mlcak, R. P., & Herndon, D. N. (2001) · Journal of Applied Physiology · doi:10.1152/jappl.2001.91.3.1168 · Cited by 211 · see citing works
“Another possibility for the improvement in treadmill time could be partially due to an improvement in motivation or psychological factors that are a well-known benefit of exercise (4, 13, 28).”
BackgroundSpinal Cord Injury, Exercise and Quality of Life
Noreau, L., & Shephard, R. J. (1995) · Sports Medicine · doi:10.2165/00007256-199520040-00003 · Cited by 206 · see citing works
Coventry, P. A., & Hind, D. (2007) · Journal of Psychosomatic Research · doi:10.1016/j.jpsychores.2007.08.002 · Cited by 197 · see citing works
“By contrast, the benefits of regular aerobic exercise of moderate duration and intensity on psychological well-being are well established, in both healthy adults and multi-aged clinical populations [21–24].”
BackgroundThe efficacy of exercise in reducing depressive symptoms among cancer survivors: a meta-analysis
Brown, J. C., Huedo-Medina, T. B., Pescatello, L. S., Ryan, S. M., Pescatello, S. M., Moker, E., LaCroix, J. M., Ferrer, R. A., & Johnson, B. T. (2012) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0030955 · Cited by 201 · see citing works
Pinto, B. M., Trunzo, J. J., Reiss, P. T., & Shiu, S. (2002) · Psycho-Oncology · doi:10.1002/pon.594 · Cited by 195 · see citing works
“Meta-analytic reviews have concluded that both acute and chronic exercises are related to a significant reduction in depression (e.g. Calfas and Taylor, 1994; North et al., 1990) and that there is a smallto-moderate relationship in the effects of both acute and chronic exercise in reducing anxiety e.”
BackgroundLeddy, J. J., Kozlowski, K. F., Fung, M., Pendergast, D. R., & Willer, B. S. (2007) · Neurorehabilitation · doi:10.3233/nre-2007-22306 · Cited by 194 · see citing works
“In addition, regular physical training has well recognized benefits on mood [66], sleep [77], and depression [62], and reduces systemic markers of inflam-mation [21], which are elevated after brain injury [16].”
Biopsychosocial experiences of adults with congenital heart disease: Review of the literature
Kovacs, A. H., Sears, S. F., & Saidi, A. S. (2005) · American Heart Journal · doi:10.1016/j.ahj.2004.08.025 · Cited by 190 · see citing works
Armstrong, K., & Edwards, H. E. (2004) · International Journal of Nursing Practice · doi:10.1111/j.1440-172x.2004.00478.x · Cited by 188 · see citing works
“…elements which depend on social and other environmental aspects, subject's expectations and other activities undertaken.25 Other possible explanations include improvement in self-esteem and distraction from negative thoughts (see reviews North et al., 1990; Salmon, 2001; Scully et al., 1998).”
BackgroundExercise training for depressed older adults with Alzheimer's disease
Williams, C. L., & Tappen, R. M. (2008) · Aging & Mental Health · doi:10.1080/13607860701529932 · Cited by 187 · see citing works
“Exercise has been shown to be effective in reducing depressive symptomatology in normal older adults, cognitively intact depressed older adults and older adults with medical illnesses (Blumenthal et al, 1999 ; Mather et al, 2002 ; Mazzeo et al, 1998 ; North, McCullagh & Tran, 1990 ; Singh, Clements & Fiatarone, 1997 ).”
BackgroundEffects of exercise training in patients with congestive heart failure: A critical review
McKelvie, R. S., Teo, K. K., McCartney, N., Humen, D. P., Montague, T. J., & Yusuf, S. (1995) · Journal of the American College of Cardiology · doi:10.1016/0735-1097(94)00428-s · Cited by 180 · see citing works
West, S. G., & Aiken, L. S. (1997) · American Psychological Association eBooks · doi:10.1037/10222-006 · Cited by 174 · see citing works
de Godoy, D. V., & de Godoy, R. F. (2003) · Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation · doi:10.1016/s0003-9993(03)00239-9 · Cited by 171 · see citing works
Complementary Therapies for Depression
Ernst, E. K., Rand, J. I., & Stevinson, C. D. (1998) · Archives of General Psychiatry · doi:10.1001/archpsyc.55.11.1026 · Cited by 170 · see citing works
Cooney, G., Dwan, K., & Mead, G. (2014) · JAMA · doi:10.1001/jama.2014.4930 · Cited by 168 · see citing works
Meta-Synthesis of Health Behavior Change Meta-Analyses
Johnson, B. T., Scott-Sheldon, L. A. J., & Carey, M. P. (2010) · American Journal of Public Health · doi:10.2105/ajph.2008.155200 · Cited by 160 · see citing works
Schmidt, M., Egger, F., Benzing, V., Jäger, K., Conzelmann, A., Roebers, C. M., & Pesce, C. (2017) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0182845 · Cited by 171 · see citing works
“Research on aerobic endurance commonly refers to the cardiovascular fitness hypothesis [59], assuming that regular PA leads to functional and structural changes in those brain regions, which are especially relevant for learning and thus academic achievement [60].”
BackgroundBrosnahan, J., Steffen, L., Lytle, L., Patterson, J., & Boostrom, A. (2004) · Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine · doi:10.1001/archpedi.158.8.818 · Cited by 164 · see citing works
“9)† Current smoker 177 (27) 215 (30) 125 (25) 52 (35)‡ 162 (29) 53 (32) Current alcohol drinker 333 (51) 334 (46) 253 (50) 80 (547) 243 (44) 91 (56)‡ Moderate physical activity, d/wk 0-2 426 (67) 390 (56)† 344 (71) 82 (56)† 306 (58) 84 (51) 3-7 205 (33) 304 (44)† 139 (29) 66 (44)† 223 (42) 81 (49) Vigorous physical ac…”
Armstrong, K., & Edwards, H. (2003) · International Journal of Mental Health Nursing · doi:10.1046/j.1440-0979.2003.00229.x · Cited by 157 · see citing works
“To determine the appropriate sample size, data from previously conducted validation studies were used (Boyce et al. 1993; Cox et al. 1987; North et al. 1990).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialA systematic review of physical activity promotion strategies.
Hillsdon, M., & Thorogood, M. (1996) · British Journal of Sports Medicine · doi:10.1136/bjsm.30.2.84 · Cited by 179 · see citing works
Exercise, Learned Helplessness, and the Stress-Resistant Brain
Greenwood, B. N., & Fleshner, M. (2008) · NeuroMolecular Medicine · doi:10.1007/s12017-008-8029-y · Cited by 159 · see citing works
“The effect size of the protective effect of exercise against depression or anxiety is large and, in fact, is equal to that of the protective effect of exercise against cardiovascular disease (North et al. 1990).”
BackgroundDouglas, M. J., Watkins, S. J., Gorman, D., & Higgins, M. (2011) · Journal of Public Health · doi:10.1093/pubmed/fdr032 · Cited by 159 · see citing works
Physical activity and mental health in a student population
Tyson, P. J., Wilson, K., Crone, D., Brailsford, R., & Laws, K. R. (2010) · Journal of Mental Health · doi:10.3109/09638230902968308 · Cited by 164 · see citing works
“Second, as North et al. (1990) suggest, the precise factors affecting the lower levels of depression and anxiety in the high physical activity group are important to consider.”
BackgroundWarburton, D. E. R., Katzmarzyk, P. T., Rhodes, R. E., & Shephard, R. J. (2007) · Applied Physiology, Nutrition, and Metabolism · doi:10.1139/h07-123 · Cited by 153 · see citing works
“Firm conclusions cannot be drawn about the effectiveness of regular physical activity in alleviating depressive symptoms among non-clinical populations owing to a lack of methodological rigour; nevertheless, prospective correlational evidence is supportive of a preventive relationship (North et al. 1990).”
BackgroundPhysical activity, fitness, weight status, and cognitive performance in adolescents
Ruiz, J. R., Ortega, F. B., Castillo, R., Martín-Matillas, M., Kwak, L., Vicente-Rodríguez, G., Noriega, J., Tercedor, P., Sjöström, M., & Moreno, L. A. (2010) · The Journal of Pediatrics · doi:10.1016/j.jpeds.2010.06.026 · Cited by 148 · see citing works
Manipulating self-efficacy in the exercise environment in women: Influences on affective responses.
McAuley, E., Talbot, H.-M., & Martinez, S. (1999) · Health Psychology · doi:10.1037/0278-6133.18.3.288 · Cited by 148 · see citing works
Physical activity and depression: clinical experience
Martinsen, E. W. (1994) · Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica · doi:10.1111/j.1600-0447.1994.tb05797.x · Cited by 145 · see citing works
Effects of muscle strengthening versus aerobic exercise program in fibromyalgia
Bircan, Ç., Karasel, S. A., Akgün, B., El, Ö., & Alper, S. (2007) · Rheumatology International · doi:10.1007/s00296-007-0484-5 · Cited by 147 · see citing works
“In healthy individuals and individuals with psychiatric disease, exercise is known to improve depression [ 26 ] and anxiety [27].”
BackgroundMood Alterations in Mindful Versus Aerobic Exercise Modes
Netz, Y., & Lidor, R. (2003) · The Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1080/00223980309600624 · Cited by 146 · see citing works
Exercise and Psychosocial Health
Biddle, S. (1995) · Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport · doi:10.1080/02701367.1995.10607914 · Cited by 146 · see citing works
Sigwalt, A. R., Budde, H., Helmich, I., Glaser, V., Ghisoni, K., Lanza, S. R., Cadore, E. L., Lhullier, F. L. R., Bem, A. F. D., Hohl, A., et al. (2011) · Neuroscience · doi:10.1016/j.neuroscience.2011.05.075 · Cited by 143 · see citing works
Factors Associated With Changes in Gait Speed in Older Adults
Büchner, D. M., Cress, M. E., Esselman, P. C., Margherita, A. J., de Lateur, B. J., Campbell, A. J., & Wagner, E. H. (1996) · The Journals of Gerontology Series A · doi:10.1093/gerona/51a.6.m297 · Cited by 140 · see citing works
“Other effects of exercise, such as effects on depressive symptoms (17), may explain part or all of the improvement.”
BackgroundMood, Anxiety, and Serum IGF-1 in Elderly Men Given 24 Weeks of High Resistance Exercise
Cassilhas, R. C., Antunes, H. K. M., Tufik, S., & de Mello, M. T. (2010) · Perceptual and Motor Skills · doi:10.2466/pms.110.1.265-276 · Cited by 137 · see citing works
- Authors
- NORTH, T. C., McCULLAGH, P., & TRAN, Z. V.
- Venue
- Exercise and Sport Sciences Reviews
- Published
- 1990-01
- Volume
- 18
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 379???416
- ISSN
- 0091-6331 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W1996444134
- Cited by
- 657
- References
- 0
- Citations by year
- 2026: 3 · 2025: 5 · 2024: 14 · 2023: 12 · 2022: 16 · 2021: 29 · 2020: 18 · 2019: 17 · 2018: 14 · 2017: 18 · 2016: 16 · 2015: 17 · 2014: 15 · 2013: 25 · 2012: 23
- FWCI
- 3.10
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Exercise and Sport Sciences Reviews (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Physiology › Physical Activity and Health
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Pharmacology › Treatment of Major Depression
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive Processes
- Keywords
- physical activity, depression, mental health
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Adult, Child, Depressive Disorder, Exercise Therapy, Female, Humans, Male, Middle Aged, Meta-Analysis as Topic, Exercise
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