A Review of Algae-Based Carbon Capture, Utilization, and Storage (Algae-Based CCUS)

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

Algae-based CCUS is integral to the BECCS framework.

“Algae-based CCUS is integral to the BECCS framework, leveraging algae's biological processes to capture and sequester CO 2 while simultaneously contributing to energy production and potentially achieving net negative carbon emissions.”

May combine two claims.

Algae's high photosynthetic efficiency, rapid growth rates, and ability to grow in non-arable environments provide significant advantages over other BECCS methods.

“Algae's high photosynthetic efficiency, rapid growth rates, and ability to grow in non-arable environments provide significant advantages over other BECCS methods.”

• cites [38][39][40]Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites [41] Laurens, 2017, A Perspective on Renewable Bioenergy from Photosynthetic Algae as Feedstock for Biofuels and Bioproducts, Algal Res. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites [44][45][46]Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Macroalgae such as kelp, Saccharina, and Ulva are primarily used in production of food, feed, and chemicals and biochemicals due to their nutritional qualities and bioactive compounds.

“In particular, macroalgae, such as kelp, Saccharina, and Ulva, are primarily used in the production of food, feed, and chemicals and biochemicals due to their rich nutritional qualities and bioactive compounds.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Among biofuels derived from microalgae, biodiesel and bioethanol generally hold the highest potential due to well-established thermochemical processing methods and the energy-dense nature of their lipid and carbohydrate contents.

“Among the biofuels derived from microalgae, biodiesel and bioethanol generally hold the highest potential due to well-established thermochemical processing methods and the energy-dense nature of their lipid and carbohydrate contents.”

May combine two claims.

Algae can grow in diverse water types, including freshwater, saltwater, and wastewater.

“Algae can grow in diverse water types, including freshwater [70,71], saltwater [72][73][74], and even wastewater [72].”

• cites [70] Verawaty, 2017, Cultivation Strategy for Freshwater Macro- and Micro-Algae as Biomass Stock for Lipid Production, J. Eng. Technol. Sci. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites [71] Xu, 2015, Nutrient Removal and Biogas Upgrading by Integrating Freshwater Algae Cultivation with Piggery Anaerobic Digestate Liquid Treatment, Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites [72][73][74]Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites [72] Chew, 2018, Effects of Water Culture Medium, Cultivation Systems and Growth Modes for Microalgae Cultivation: A Review, J. Taiwan Inst. Chem. Eng. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Chlorella vulgaris and Scenedesmus obliquus have been successfully cultivated in wastewater and have aided in removal of pollutants like nitrogen and phosphorus.

“For instance, Chlorella vulgaris and Scenedesmus obliquus have been successfully cultivated in wastewater and have aided in the removal of pollutants like nitrogen and phosphorus [77,78].”

• cites [77] Asaad, A.A., and Amer, A.S. (2024). Evaluation of Chlorella Vulgaris Biosorption Capacity for Phosphate and Nitrate Removal from Wastewater. Sci. Rep., 14. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites [78] He, 2023, Cultivation of Chlorella Pyrenoidosa and Scenedesmus Obliquus in Swine Wastewater: Nitrogen and Phosphorus Removal and Microalgal Growth, Process Saf. Environ. Prot. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Algae can thrive in environments unsuitable for traditional agriculture, such as polluted water, minimizing competition for arable land and freshwater.

“Algae can also thrive in environments that are unsuitable for traditional agriculture, such as polluted water, minimizing competition for arable land and freshwater [44][45][46].”

• cites [44][45][46]Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

The carbon capture capacity of algae is primarily determined by factors including algal species, light conditions, temperature and pH, and cultivation medium composition.

“The carbon capture capacity of algae is primarily determined by factors including algal species, light conditions, temperature and pH, and the cultivation medium composition.”

May combine two claims.

Algae can absorb sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides, further contributing to emission reductions.

“In addition to CO 2 , algae can absorb sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides, further contributing to emission reductions [42,43].”

• cites [42] Srivastava, 2023, Study of Acidic Air Pollutant (SO2 and NO2) Tolerance of Microalgae with Sodium Bicarbonate as Growth Stimulant, AQUA—Water Infrastruct. Ecosyst. Soc. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites [43] Qie, F., Zhu, J., Rong, J., and Zong, B. (2019). Biological Removal of Nitrogen Oxides by Microalgae, a Promising Strategy from Nitrogen Oxides to Protein Production. Bioresour. Technol., 292. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Some microalgae can be cultivated on land unsuitable for traditional agriculture, such as non-arable or saline soils, avoiding competition with conventional crops for arable land and freshwater.

“This adaptability allows some microalgae to be cultivated on land unsuitable for traditional agriculture, such as non-arable or saline soils, thus avoiding competition with conventional crops for valuable arable land and freshwater resources.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The process of algal photosynthesis involves light-dependent and light-independent reactions.

“This process involves two stages: light-dependent and lightindependent reactions, with the associated reactions illustrated in Figure 2.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

This review included approximately 280 studies after screening 6195 retrieved publications and 1600 full-text reviews.

“Initially, a total of 6195 publications were retrieved from the database search.After screening abstracts according to inclusion criteria, 1600 publications were selected for full-text review.Finally, approximately 280 studies were included in this review.”

May combine two claims.

Spiruline platensis has been shown to absorb and detoxify heavy metals in contaminated water while contributing to biomass production by capturing CO2.

“Spiruline platensis has been shown to absorb and detoxify heavy metals in contaminated water while contributing to biomass production by capturing CO 2 [79].”

• cites [79] Diaconu, M., Soreanu, G., Balan, C.D., Buciscanu, I.I., Maier, V., and Cretescu, I. (2023). Study of Spirulina Platensis (Arthrospira) Development under the Heavy Metals Influence, as a Potential Promoter of Wastewater Remediation. Water, 15. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Production of biofuels from microalgae exemplifies a sustainable closed-loop process, where CO2 emitted during combustion can be absorbed by algae for photosynthesis.

“Notably, the production of biofuels from microalgae exemplifies a sustainable closed-loop process.During biofuel combustion, CO 2 is emitted and can then be absorbed by algae for photosynthesis as part of a natural cycle, thus creating a continuous and self-sustaining carbon process.”

May combine two claims.

Algae capture CO2 through photosynthesis, which can be utilized in commercial production of high-value products such as food, nutraceuticals, pharmaceuticals, and cosmetics.

“Algae capture CO 2 through photosynthesis, which can be utilized in the commercial production of high-value products such as food, nutraceuticals, pharmaceuticals, and cosmetics.”

• cites [37] Vigani, 2015, Food and Feed Products from Micro-Algae: Market Opportunities and Challenges for the EU, Trends Food Sci. Technol. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Algae exhibit higher photosynthetic rates and shorter growth cycles compared to traditional terrestrial plants.

“Algae exhibit higher photosynthetic rates and shorter growth cycles compared to traditional terrestrial plants [47].”

• cites [47] Paul, 2021, Review on the Recent Structural Advances in Open and Closed Systems for Carbon Capture through Algae, Energy Nexus sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Microalgae are commonly utilized for biofuel production due to their high biomass content and rapid growth rates.

“In contrast, microalgae are commonly utilized for biofuel production due to their high biomass content and rapid growth rates.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

There is a lack of comprehensive reviews on algae-based CCUS through both organic and inorganic pathways.

“However, there are still a lack of comprehensive reviews on algae-based CCUS through both organic and inorganic pathways.”

May combine two claims.

Integration of algal cultivation with wastewater and CO2-rich waste gases can enhance algal biomass accumulation and improve carbon capture efficiency while mitigating environmental impacts.

“In addition, several studies have explored the integration of algal cultivation with wastewater [130,131] and CO 2 -rich waste gases [132,133] to enhance algal biomass accumulation and improve carbon capture efficiency while mitigating environmental impacts.”

• cites [130] Gentili, 2017, Algal Cultivation in Urban Wastewater: An Efficient Way to Reduce Pharmaceutical Pollutants, J. Appl. Phycol. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites [131] Ma, 2014, Effect of Wastewater-Borne Bacteria on Algal Growth and Nutrients Removal in Wastewater-Based Algae Cultivation System, Bioresour. Technol. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites [132] Bakonyi, 2020, Possibilities for the Biologically-Assisted Utilization of CO2-Rich Gaseous Waste Streams Generated during Membrane Technological Separation of Biohydrogen, J. CO2 Util. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites [133] Comley, 2024, Utilizing CO2 in Industrial off-Gas for Microalgae Cultivation: Considerations and Solutions, Crit. Rev. Biotechnol. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Hena et al. found that four microalgae strains thrived in dairy wastewater, effectively removing nutrients and leading to increased biomass production.

“They found that the microalgae thrived in dairy wastewater, effectively removing nutrients, and leading to increased biomass production [134].”

• cites [134] Hena, 2015, Cultivation of Algae Consortium in a Dairy Farm Wastewater for Biodiesel Production, Water Resour. Ind. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Mixed-culture approach lowers operational and maintenance costs and enhances biomass production by allowing complementary nutrient utilization, leading to improved economic benefits.

“This approach not only lowers the operational and maintenance costs associated with stringent environmental conditions, but also enhances biomass production by allowing different species to complementarily utilize the nutrients in the cultivation medium, leading to improved economic benefits [129].”

• cites [129] Reis, 2003, Production of Polyhydroxyalkanoates by Mixed Microbial Cultures, Bioprocess. Biosyst. Eng. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Using wastewater as a nutrient source for algal cultures promotes growth, increases biomass yield, and addresses environmental challenges posed by wastewater.

“Using this wastewater as a nutrient source for algal cultures promotes growth, increases biomass yield, and addresses the environmental challenges posed by wastewater.”

May combine two claims.

Traditional approaches like selective breeding, strain development, and environmental adaptation have long been used to improve algal traits, but require extended periods.

“Traditional approaches like selective breeding and strain development [107,108] and environmental adaptation [109,110] have long been used to improve algal traits.However, both methods typically require extended periods of time to achieve significant improvements.”

• cites [107] Takouridis, 2015, The Selective Breeding of the Freshwater Microalga Chlamydomonas reinhardtii for Growth in Salinity, Bioresour. Technol. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites [108] Jebali, A., Sanchez, M.R., Hanschen, E.R., Starkenburg, S.R., and Corcoran, A.A. (2022). Trait Drift in Microalgae and Applications for Strain Improvement. Biotechnol. Adv., 60. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites [109] Nayaka, S., Toppo, K., and Verma, S. (2017). Adaptation in Algae to Environmental Stress and Ecological Conditions. Plant Adaptation Strategies in Changing Environment, Springer. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites [110] Cho, 2023, Genome-Wide Signatures of Adaptation to Extreme Environments in Red Algae, Nat. Commun. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Most algae exhibit maximum carbon capture and biomass production within a temperature range of 15°C to 30°C and a pH of 7 to 9.

“Most algae exhibit a maximum carbon capture and biomass production within a temperature range of 15 • C to 30 • C [95], and a pH of 7 to 9 [103], which is neutral to slightly alkaline, and promotes efficient carbon fixation via the CCM [104].”

• cites [95] Singh, 2015, Effect of Temperature and Light on the Growth of Algae Species: A Review, Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites [103] Gimmler, H. (2001). Acidophilic and Acidotolerant Algae. Algal Adaptation to Environmental Stresses, Springer. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Gravity enrichment method can cultivate lipid-rich and carbohydrate-rich algae based on cell density differences, enhancing large-scale production of algae with different storage compounds.

“Specifically, they employed a gravity enrichment method to cultivate lipid-rich and carbohydrate-rich algae based on their cell density differences.The less dense lipid-rich algae float on the surface of the culture medium, while the denser starchrich algae settle at the bottom.This simple, flexible, and cost-effective method enhances large-scale production of algae with different storage”

• cites [126] Hassanpour, 2015, Gravimetric Enrichment of High Lipid and Starch Accumulating Microalgae, Bioresour. Technol. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Nutrient-rich wastewater from dairy and sugar processing contains essential nutrients like nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium, which if untreated can disrupt water uses.

“Nutrient-rich wastewater from sources such as dairy and sugar processing contains essential nutrients like nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium, which, if untreated, can disrupt normal water uses, including drinking, irrigation, and recreational activities [134-137].”

• cites [134] Hena, 2015, Cultivation of Algae Consortium in a Dairy Farm Wastewater for Biodiesel Production, Water Resour. Ind. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites [135] Passero, 2015, Dairy Wastewaters for Algae Cultivation, Polyhydroxyalkanote Reactor Effluent Versus Anaerobic Digester Effluent, Bioenergy Res. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites [136] Vieira Costa, J.A., Cruz, C.G., and da Rosa, A.P.C. (2021). Insights into the Technology Utilized to Cultivate Microalgae in Dairy Effluents. Biocatal. Agric. Biotechnol., 35. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites [137] Zewdie, 2020, Cultivation of Microalgae for Biofuel Production: Coupling with Sugarcane-Processing Factories, Energy Sustain. Soc. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Hassanpour et al. used mixed-culture systems to simultaneously capture CO2 and produce various types of biomass, enhancing economic efficiency and productivity.

“To fully leverage the advantages of mixed-culture systems in large-scale production, Hassanpour et al. utilized such systems to simultaneously capture CO 2 and produce various types of biomass, enhancing the economic efficiency and productivity of biomass production [126].”

• cites [126] Hassanpour, 2015, Gravimetric Enrichment of High Lipid and Starch Accumulating Microalgae, Bioresour. Technol. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Mixed cultures leverage species diversity, enabling adaptation to varying light, temperature, and pH conditions.

“Mixed cultures leverage species diversity [127], enabling adaptation to varying light, temperature, and pH conditions [128].”

• cites [127] Kleerebezem, 2007, Mixed Culture Biotechnology for Bioenergy Production, Curr. Opin. Biotechnol. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites [128] Scott, 2010, Biodiesel from Algae: Challenges and Prospects, Curr. Opin. Biotechnol. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Monoculture is highly sensitive to environmental fluctuations, exhibits poor resistance to stress, requires costly maintenance, and is vulnerable to contamination.

“While this method ensures efficient growth under optimal conditions and facilitates standardized management and operation, it is highly sensitive to environmental fluctuations and exhibits poor resistance to stress.As a result, it requires costly maintenance and is vulnerable to contamination, which can severely impact algal growth and productivity.”

• cites [124] Smith, 2014, Applying Ecological Principles of Crop Cultivation in Large-Scale Algal Biomass Production, Algal Res. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Third-generation biofuels from algae are more sustainable due to algae's rapid growth, high yield, low land use, and efficient CO2 utilization.

“Third-generation biofuels from algae have garnered attention due to algae's rapid growth, high yield, low land use, and efficient CO 2 utilization, making them a more sustainable option.”

May combine two claims.

Algal biomass can be processed into biofuels and other valuable products, utilizing carbon in a form that creates economic value and contributes to CCUS.

“This biomass can then be further processed into biofuels and other valuable products, thereby utilizing carbon in a form that creates economic value and contributes to the CCUS process.”

May combine two claims.

The main products of solid pellet combustion are typically CO2 and ash, both of which can be fully recycled into algae cultivation.

“Additionally, the main products of solid pellet combustion are typically CO 2 and ash, both of which can be fully recycled into algae cultivation [48].”

• cites [48] Yang, J., Zhao, T., Cui, X., Peng, M., Wang, X., Mao, H., and Cui, M. (2022). New Insights into the Carbon Neutrality of Microalgae from Culture to Utilization: A Critical Review on the Algae-Based Solid Biofuels. Biomass Bioenergy, 166. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Suriya Narayanan et al. demonstrated that using LPG-burned exhaust gas streams as carbon source for Coelastrella sp. FI69 achieved a promisingly high net energy ratio and effective capture/utilization of CO2-rich gas streams.

“The results demonstrated that this method achieved a promisingly high net energy ratio and underscored the significance of using this strain for effective capture and utilization of CO 2 -rich gas streams.”

• cites [138] kumar, 2019, Utilization of Unfiltered LPG-Burner Exhaust-Gas Emission Using Microalga Coelastrella sp., J. CO2 Util. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Internet of Things makes microalgal cultivation systems intelligent, enabling autonomous management and improvement of operational performance, greatly enhancing cultivation efficiency and leading to more efficient carbon capture.

“In essence, this makes microalgal cultivation systems intelligent, as it can autonomously manage and improve their operational performance, greatly enhancing cultivation efficiency and leading to more efficient carbon capture.”

May combine two claims.

Acedo et al. demonstrated that leveraging synergies between CO2 emission sources and algal cultivation can enhance carbon capture efficiency and support sustainable production of algal biofuels and bioproducts.

“The results demonstrated that leveraging synergies between CO 2 emission sources and algal cultivation can not only enhance carbon capture efficiency but also support the sustainable production of algal biofuels and bioproducts.”

• cites [139] Acedo, 2020, Coupling Carbon Capture from a Power Plant with Semi-Automated Open Raceway Ponds for Microalgae Cultivation, J. Vis. Exp.Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Microbubble-assisted photobioreactors integrating Venturi microbubble generators and bubble columns significantly increase gas-liquid contact area, promoting CO2 mass transfer and boosting overall CO2 capture efficiency.

“Microbubble-assisted PBRs, integrating Venturi microbubble generators and bubble columns, significantly increase the gas-liquid contact area to promote the mass transfer efficiency of CO 2 , thereby boosting the overall CO 2 capture efficiency [142].”

• cites [142] Dey, 2020, High-Rate CO2 Sequestration Using a Novel Venturi Integrated Photobioreactor and Subsequent Valorization to Microalgal Lipids, Green. Chem. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Algae-based solid biomass pellets offer significant advantages as fuel due to high efficiency during direct combustion and low carbon emissions.

“These pellets offer significant advantages as a fuel, particularly due to their high efficiency during direct combustion and low carbon emissions.”

May combine two claims.

Gaseous CO2, the most commonly used carbon source for algae cultivation, transfers into the cultivation medium through diffusion across the gas-liquid interface, which is influenced by mass transfer limitations.

“Gaseous CO 2 , the most commonly used carbon source for algae cultivation, transfers into the cultivation medium through diffusion across the gas-liquid interface, which is influenced by mass transfer limitations.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Algal components offer antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and free radical scavenging properties, leading to applications in food, feed, supplements, pharmaceuticals, and cosmetics.

“These components offer exceptional antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and free radical scavenging properties, leading to their widespread applications in food, feed, supplements, pharmaceuticals, and cosmetics [37,84,155,156].”

• cites [37] Vigani, 2015, Food and Feed Products from Micro-Algae: Market Opportunities and Challenges for the EU, Trends Food Sci. Technol. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites [84] Lerat, Y., Cornish, M.L., and Critchley, A.T. (2018). Applications of Algal Biomass in Global Food and Feed Markets: From Traditional Usage to the Potential for Functional Products. Blue Biotechnology, Wiley. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites [155] Vieira, M.V., Pastrana, L.M., and Fuciños, P. (2020). Microalgae Encapsulation Systems for Food, Pharmaceutical and Cosmetics Applications. Mar. Drugs, 18. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites [156] Michalak, 2015, Algae as Production Systems of Bioactive Compounds, Eng. Life Sci. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Internet of Things connectivity allows remote management and automatic adjustment of lighting, temperature, and nutrient supply, enhancing operational flexibility and efficiency.

“Furthermore, the connectivity features of IoT allow for remote management and operation, enabling the automatic adjustment of lighting, temperature, and nutrient supply.”

May combine two claims.

CO2 released during biofuel production and combustion can be absorbed by algae again for cultivation, creating a closed-loop system that aligns with BECCS and offers significant potential for net-negative carbon emissions.

“The CO 2 released during biofuel production and combustion can be absorbed by algae again for cultivation, creating a closed-loop system that aligns with the BECCS framework and offers significant potential for net-negative carbon emissions.”

May combine two claims.

Bicarbonate application significantly improves carbon fixation efficiency in algae and enhances carbon utilization by increasing production of intracellular total sugars, exopolysaccharides, chlorophyll, and phycocyanin.

“Their study demonstrated that, in addition to significantly improving carbon fixation efficiency in algae, bicarbonate application can enhance carbon utilization by increasing the production of intracellular total sugars, exopolysaccharides, chlorophyll, and phycocyanin.”

• cites [150] Yang, 2024, Carbon Capture and Utilization by Algae with High Concentration CO2 or Bicarbonate as Carbon Source, Sci. Total Environ. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

During plant growth, atmospheric CO2 is absorbed, and when biofuels are combusted, the CO2 released is roughly equivalent to the amount absorbed, making biofuels a relatively clean energy source.

“During plant growth, atmospheric CO 2 is absorbed, and when biofuels are combusted, the CO 2 released is roughly equivalent to the amount absorbed, making biofuels a relatively clean energy source [53].”

• cites [53] Nematian, T., and Barati, M. (2019). Nanobiocatalytic Processes for Producing Biodiesel from Algae. Sustainable Bioenergy, Elsevier. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Algae capture CO2 from the atmosphere and convert it into organic carbon compounds in algal biomass, which serves as an intermediary product.

“Specifically, algae capture CO 2 from the atmosphere and efficiently convert it into organic carbon compounds in algal biomass, which serves as an intermediary product.”

May combine two claims.

In Sharma et al.'s study, a consortium of Bacillus sphaericus and Nostoc commune catalyzed formation of calcite crystals that bonded sand particles, significantly increasing soil strength and reducing permeability.

“The results demonstrated that these microorganisms catalyzed the formation of calcite (CaCO 3 ) crystals, which bonded sand particles together, significantly increasing the soil strength and reducing permeability.”

• cites [270] Sharma, 2020, Strength Enhancement and Lead Immobilization of Sand Using Consortia of Bacteria and Blue-Green Algae, J. Hazard. Toxic Radioact. Waste sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Thermochemical technologies generally demonstrate higher energy conversion efficiencies and greater economic feasibility compared to biochemical processes.

“While energy conversion efficiency and economic feasibility depend on multiple factors, thermochemical technologies generally demonstrate higher energy conversion efficiencies and greater economic feasibility compared to biochemical processes [267].”

• cites [267] Raheem, 2015, Thermochemical Conversion of Microalgal Biomass for Biofuel Production, Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Acid pretreatment degrades polysaccharides, lowers energy consumption, and increases sugar yields, making it cost-efficient compared to other pretreatment technologies.

“It also degrades polysaccharides, lowers energy consumption, and increases sugar yields, making it a cost-efficient option compared to other pretreatment technologies [197].”

• cites [197] Phwan, C.K., Chew, K.W., Sebayang, A.H., Ong, H.C., Ling, T.C., Malek, M.A., Ho, Y.-C., and Show, P.L. (2019). Effects of Acids Pre-Treatment on the Microbial Fermentation Process for Bioethanol Production from Microalgae. Biotechnol. Biofuels, 12. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Optimizing process parameters through simulation lowers production costs and improves both the efficiency and quality of syngas production in practical applications.

“Optimizing process parameters through simulation lowers production costs and improves both the efficiency and quality of syngas production in practical applications.”

May combine two claims.

Miranda et al. produced Scenedesmus pellets with a density of 788 kg/m3 and an energy density of 14,165 MJ/m3, higher than industrial wood-based fuels around 11,000 MJ/m3, highlighting significant biofuel potential.

“Miranda et al. produced Scenedesmus pellets with a density of 788 kg/m 3 and an energy density of 14,165 MJ/m 3 , which is higher than that of industrial wood-based fuels (around 11,000 MJ/m 3 ), highlighting their significant biofuel potential [161].”

• cites [161] Miranda, 2018, Physical-Energy Characterization of Microalgae Scenedesmus and Experimental Pellets, Fuel sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Hydrothermal carbonization reduces energy consumption for drying algae, improves production efficiency, and lowers production costs.

“This characteristic is a significant advantage of the technology, as it reduces energy consumption for drying algae, improves production efficiency, and lowers production costs.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Algae-based biodiesel is currently the closest to commercialization among algae-based biofuels.

“Although production technologies for various algae-based biofuels are continuously advancing, algae-based biodiesel is currently the one closest to commercialization.”

May combine two claims.

Kosowska-Golachowska et al. tested Oscillatoria sp. pellets in circulating fluidized bed boilers, achieving a high heating value of 15.86 MJ/kg, fast ignition at 308°C, and efficient combustion times.

“Kosowska-Golachowska et al. tested Oscillatoria sp.pellets in circulating fluidized bed (CFB) boilers, achieving a high heating value of 15.86 MJ/kg, fast ignition at 308 • C, and efficient combustion times [164].”

• cites [164] Urbaniak, 2017, Analysis of Microalgae Pellets Combustion in a Circulating Fluidized-Bed, E3S Web Conf. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Production of algae-based syngas is influenced by algae type and characteristics, and by gasification operational parameters such as temperature, pressure, and airflow rate.

“The production of algae-based syngas is influenced by the algae type and characteristics, as well as by gasification operational parameters, such as temperature, pressure, and airflow rate.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Algae-based syngas is produced through gasification, where biomass is converted into syngas at high temperatures (700-1000 °C) with oxidants like oxygen, air, and steam.

“Algae-based syngas is produced through gasification, a process where biomass is converted into syngas at high temperatures (700-1000 °C) with oxidants like oxygen, air and steam.”

• cites [255] Faraji, 2021, Hydrogen-Rich Syngas Production via Integrated Configuration of Pyrolysis and Air Gasification Processes of Various Algal Biomass: Process Simulation and Evaluation Using Aspen Plus Software, Int. J. Hydrog. Energy sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Compared to using coal alone, co-combustion of algae-based pellets or co-pellets with coal lowers ignition and burnout temperatures, increases the combustion index, and reduces ignition delay times, enhancing overall combustion performance.

“Compared to using coal alone, the co-combustion of algae-based pellets or co-pellets with coal can lower ignition and burnout temperatures, increase the combustion index, and reduce ignition delay times [48,169], thus significantly enhancing the overall combustion performance.”

• cites [48] Yang, J., Zhao, T., Cui, X., Peng, M., Wang, X., Mao, H., and Cui, M. (2022). New Insights into the Carbon Neutrality of Microalgae from Culture to Utilization: A Critical Review on the Algae-Based Solid Biofuels. Biomass Bioenergy, 166. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites [169] Kastanaki, 2006, A Comparative Reactivity and Kinetic Study on the Combustion of Coal–Biomass Char Blends, Fuel sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

The organic pathway primarily emphasizes carbon utilization rather than carbon storage, because captured carbon is stored only short-term before being converted into biofuels rather than permanently stored.

“However, this organic pathway primarily emphasizes carbon utilization rather than carbon storage, as the captured carbon is stored only short-term before being converted into biofuels for utilization rather than being permanently stored.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Algae capture atmospheric CO2 through photosynthesis, converting it into organic biomass, which is then used to produce high-value bioenergy.

May combine two claims.

Other algae-based biofuels remain in research or pilot stages and have not yet achieved large-scale commercial production.

“Other algae-based biofuels remain in the research or pilot stages and have not yet achieved large-scale commercial production.”

May combine two claims.

Although hydrothermal carbonization has not yet been widely adopted, its low energy consumption presents significant potential for biocoal production.

“Although HTC technology has not yet been widely adopted, its low energy consumption presents significant potential for biocoal production.”

May combine two claims.

In algae, MICP processes such as ureolysis, sulfate reduction, and denitrification elevate pH and increase bicarbonate concentration.

“Simultaneously, the MICP process involves key microbial processes, such as ureolysis (urea hydrolysis), sulfate reduction, and denitrification, which not only elevate the pH within the microbial system, but also increase the concentration of bicarbonate ions [271].”

• cites [271] Lin, W., Lin, W., Cheng, X., Chen, G., and Ersan, Y.C. (2021). Microbially Induced Desaturation and Carbonate Precipitation through Denitrification: A Review. Appl. Sci., 11. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

An integrated biodiesel-bioethanol production approach enhances resource efficiency, reduces waste production, and potentially increases economic benefits, making the overall process more sustainable and economically viable.

“This integrated approach not only enhances resource efficiency but also reduces waste production and potentially increases economic benefits, making the overall process more sustainable and economically viable.”

May combine two claims.

Enzymatic catalysts improve transesterification reaction completeness, reduce unreacted intermediates and byproducts, and enhance biodiesel purity and yield.

“Enzymatic catalysts, with their unique acyl migration mechanism, offer significant benefits in improving the transesterification reaction completeness, reducing unreacted intermediates and byproducts, and enhancing biodiesel purity and yield [184].”

• cites [184] Christopher, 2014, Enzymatic Biodiesel: Challenges and Opportunities, Appl. Energy sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

In anaerobic digestion for biogas, hydrolysis breaks complex organic polymers into simpler compounds with hydrogen release, acidogenesis produces alcohols, aldehydes, volatile fatty acids, acetate, and carbon dioxide, acetogenesis converts residuals into acetate, carbon dioxide, and hydrogen, and methanogenesis converts acetate, carbon dioxide, and hydrogen into biogas.

“In hydrolysis, hydrolytic bacteria secreting enzymes break down complex organic polymers into simpler compounds, with hydrogen being released.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Traditional carbon storage techniques such as geological storage can incur high costs and involve risks of leakage.

“Some traditional carbon storage techniques, such as geological storage, can incur high costs and involve risks of leakage.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Improving efficiency and yield of biofuel production can be achieved by selecting suitable algal strains as feedstock.

“In algae-based carbon utilization for biofuel production, improving the efficiency and yield of biofuel production can be achieved by selecting suitable algal strains as feedstock.”

May combine two claims.

This research highlights the potential of combining algal characteristics with biomanufacturing techniques to harness dual carbon storage capabilities of algae, offering a scalable solution for CO2 storage.

“This research highlights the potential of combining algal characteristics with biomanufacturing techniques to harness the dual carbon storage capabilities of algae, offering a scalable solution for CO 2 storage.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

The energy required for cultivation, harvesting, and conversion must be carefully managed to ensure that net energy balance remains positive.

“The energy required for cultivation, harvesting, and conversion must be carefully managed to ensure that the net energy balance remains positive, that is, the energy output from the final biofuel exceeds the energy input.”

May combine two claims.

Macroalgae have low protein and lipid content but high carbohydrates and moisture.

“Low protein and lipid content but high carbohydrates and moisture”

• cites [53] Nematian, T., and Barati, M. (2019). Nanobiocatalytic Processes for Producing Biodiesel from Algae. Sustainable Bioenergy, Elsevier. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites [59] Sambusiti, 2015, Algae as Promising Feedstocks for Fermentative Biohydrogen Production According to a Biorefinery Approach: A Comprehensive Review, Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites [60] Saifuddin, 2016, Developments in Bio-Hydrogen Production from Algae: A Review, Res. J. Appl. Sci. Eng. Technol. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

This makes photosynthetic MICP a more sustainable, eco-friendly, and cost-effective choice for carbon sequestration.

“This makes it a more sustainable, eco-friendly, and cost-effective choice for carbon sequestration.”

May combine two claims.

In algae, carbon is stored not only as organic biomass through photosynthesis, but also as inorganic calcium carbonate precipitates via MICP.

“Consequently, in algae, carbon is stored not only in the form of organic biomass through photosynthesis, but also as inorganic calcium carbonate precipitates via MICP.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Algae capture atmospheric CO2 through photosynthesis, converting it into organic biomass, which is then used to produce high-value bioenergy.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Macroalgae grow in coastal or shallow water areas, usually requiring substrate attachment.

“Coastal or shallow water areas, substrate attachment usually requiring”

• cites [53] Nematian, T., and Barati, M. (2019). Nanobiocatalytic Processes for Producing Biodiesel from Algae. Sustainable Bioenergy, Elsevier. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites [59] Sambusiti, 2015, Algae as Promising Feedstocks for Fermentative Biohydrogen Production According to a Biorefinery Approach: A Comprehensive Review, Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites [60] Saifuddin, 2016, Developments in Bio-Hydrogen Production from Algae: A Review, Res. J. Appl. Sci. Eng. Technol. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Recent advancements in these technologies have led to increased yields of biofuels.

“Recent advancements in these technologies have led to increased yields of biofuels.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

Algae, with high photosynthetic efficiency, fast growth rates, and lack of competition with arable land, has emerged as a promising candidate within the BECCS framework to address the dual challenges of reducing atmospheric CO2 and producing sustainable bioenergy.

“Algae, with its high photosynthetic efficiency, fast growth rates, and lack of competition with arable land, has emerged as a promising candidate within the BECCS framework to address the dual challenges of reducing atmospheric CO 2 concentrations and producing sustainable bioenergy.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Algae capture atmospheric CO2 through photosynthesis, converting it into organic biomass, which is then used to produce high-value bioenergy.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

The algae-based photosynthetic MICP dual carbon storage mechanism shows significant potential for practical and widespread application due to its scalability.

“The algae-based photosynthetic MICP dual carbon storage mechanism shows significant potential for practical and widespread application due to its scalability.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Macroalgae are classified into four groups based on pigmentation: Heterokontophyta, Rhodophyta, Cyanophyta, and Chlorophyta.

“Classified into Heterokontophyta, and Rhodophyta Cyanophyta, Chlorophyta, four groups based on pigmentation:”

• cites [53] Nematian, T., and Barati, M. (2019). Nanobiocatalytic Processes for Producing Biodiesel from Algae. Sustainable Bioenergy, Elsevier. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites [59] Sambusiti, 2015, Algae as Promising Feedstocks for Fermentative Biohydrogen Production According to a Biorefinery Approach: A Comprehensive Review, Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites [60] Saifuddin, 2016, Developments in Bio-Hydrogen Production from Algae: A Review, Res. J. Appl. Sci. Eng. Technol. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Currently, algae-based carbon capture technologies have significantly improved CO2 capture efficiency through photosynthesis by enhancing open and closed cultivation systems and optimizing relevant cultivation parameters.

“Currently, algae-based carbon capture technologies have significantly improved CO 2 capture efficiency through photosynthesis by enhancing open and closed cultivation systems and optimizing relevant cultivation parameters.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Algae capture atmospheric CO2 through photosynthesis, converting it into organic biomass, which is then used to produce high-value bioenergy.

May combine two claims.

Traditional carbon capture technologies such as amine-based CO2 capture and post-combustion carbon capture generate harmful by-products like amine degradation products or corrosive compounds, requiring higher costs for treatment.

“Some traditional carbon capture technologies, such as amine-based CO2 capture systems and post-combustion carbon capture, generate harmful by-products like amine degradation products or corrosive compounds, which require higher costs for additional treatment processes, chemicals, and extra energy.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Photosynthetic MICP leverages natural biological processes that do not require external energy or produce toxic by-products.

“In contrast, photosynthetic MICP leverages natural biological processes that do not require external energy or produce toxic by-products.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

This dual carbon storage mechanism, when integrated with additive manufacturing technology, enables production of materials for carbon storage, facilitating scalable and feasible CO2 storage solutions.

“This dual carbon storage mecha-nism, when integrated with additive manufacturing technology, enables the production of materials for carbon storage, facilitating scalable and feasible CO 2 storage solutions.”

May combine two claims.

The dual carbon mechanism creates a more resilient and efficient approach for carbon sequestration, addressing the need for both short-term and long-term carbon storage.

“Therefore, this dual carbon mechanism creates a more resilient and efficient approach for carbon sequestration, effectively addressing the need for both short-term (organic) and more importantly, long-term (inorganic) carbon storage solutions.”

May combine two claims.

CO2 captured by algae is converted into algal biomass, which can be utilized for production of various biofuels including solid pellets and biocoal, biodiesel and bioethanol, and biohydrogen, biogas, and syngas.

“The CO 2 captured by algae is converted into algal biomass, which can be utilized for the production of various biofuels, including solid pellets and biocoal as solid biofuels, biodiesel and bioethanol as liquid biofuels, and biohydrogen, biogas, and syngas as gaseous biofuels.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Algae capture atmospheric CO2 through photosynthesis, converting it into organic biomass, which is then used to produce high-value bioenergy.

May combine two claims.

Macroalgae have high productivity, carbon to biomass from inorganic, bioremediation of contaminants, and high conversion capability.

“High productivity; carbon to biomass from inorganic Bioremediation of contaminants; High conversion capability”

• cites [53] Nematian, T., and Barati, M. (2019). Nanobiocatalytic Processes for Producing Biodiesel from Algae. Sustainable Bioenergy, Elsevier. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites [59] Sambusiti, 2015, Algae as Promising Feedstocks for Fermentative Biohydrogen Production According to a Biorefinery Approach: A Comprehensive Review, Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites [60] Saifuddin, 2016, Developments in Bio-Hydrogen Production from Algae: A Review, Res. J. Appl. Sci. Eng. Technol. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

This creates a dual carbon storage mechanism involving both photosynthesis and MICP, further enhancing the potential of algae-based systems in CCUS.

“This creates a dual carbon storage mechanism, as illustrated in Figure 6, which involves both photosynthesis and MICP, further enhancing the potential of algae-based systems in CCUS.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Macroalgae have complex structures composed of multicellular organisms.

“Complex structures composed of multicellular organisms”

• cites [53] Nematian, T., and Barati, M. (2019). Nanobiocatalytic Processes for Producing Biodiesel from Algae. Sustainable Bioenergy, Elsevier. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites [59] Sambusiti, 2015, Algae as Promising Feedstocks for Fermentative Biohydrogen Production According to a Biorefinery Approach: A Comprehensive Review, Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites [60] Saifuddin, 2016, Developments in Bio-Hydrogen Production from Algae: A Review, Res. J. Appl. Sci. Eng. Technol. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

This approach improves overall economic viability, promoting sustainable development of algae-based CCUS.

“This approach improves overall economic viability, promoting the sustainable development of algae-based CCUS.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

Modifying photosynthetic pigments, altering photosynthesis-related proteins, and improving activity and stability of carbon fixation enzymes can help algae maintain efficient carbon capture under diverse cultivation conditions.

“For instance, modifying photosynthetic pigments [278], altering photosynthesis-related proteins [279], and improving the activity and stability of carbon fixation enzymes [280] can help algae maintain efficient carbon capture under diverse cultivation conditions.”

• cites [278] Kana, 1997, Regulation of Photosynthetic Pigments in Micro-algae by Multiple Environmental Factors: A Dynamic Balance Hypothesis, New Phytol. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites [279] Vener, 2007, Environmentally Modulated Phosphorylation and Dynamics of Proteins in Photosynthetic Membranes, Biochim. Et Biophys. Acta (BBA)-Bioenerg. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites [280] Durall, 2015, Mechanisms of Carbon Fixation and Engineering for Increased Carbon Fixation in Cyanobacteria, Algal Res. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Dranseike et al. demonstrated that algae in optimized bioprinted structures could survive and grow normally for over a year, successfully achieving dual carbon storage through biomass production via photosynthesis and formation of insoluble carbonates via MICP.

“As a result, the study demonstrated that the algae in these optimized bioprinted structures could survive and grow normally for over a year, successfully achieving dual carbon storage through biomass production via photosynthesis and the formation of insoluble carbonates via MICP.”

• cites [272] Dranseike, D., Cui, Y., Ling, A.S., Donat, F., Bernhard, S., Bernero, M., Areeckal, A., Qin, X.-H., Oakey, J.S., and Dillenburger, B. (2023). Dual Carbon Sequestration with Photosynthetic Living Materials. bioRxiv, 12. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Genetic and metabolic engineering can be employed to optimize specific phenotypes and metabolic pathways in algae, maximizing biomass yield and significantly improving biofuel production efficiency and output.

“Additionally, genetic and metabolic engineering can be employed to optimize specific phenotypes and metabolic pathways in algae, maximizing biomass yield and significantly improving biofuel production efficiency and output.”

May combine two claims.

Algae can store CO2 as organic matter through photosynthesis and as inorganic carbon precipitation through MICP, exhibiting a dual carbon storage mechanism.

“Algae, in addition to storing CO 2 as organic matter through photosynthesis, can leverage their microbial properties to store CO 2 in the form of inorganic carbon precipitation through MICP, thereby exhibiting a dual carbon storage mechanism.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Algae capture atmospheric CO2 through photosynthesis, converting it into organic biomass, which is then used to produce high-value bioenergy.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Enhancing algae's resistance to bacterial and other biological contamination can significantly reduce maintenance costs of cultivation systems.

“Additionally, enhancing algae's resistance to bacterial and other biological contamination can significantly reduce the maintenance costs of cultivation systems.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Converting by-products or residual algae from biofuel production into high-value products such as biofertilizers, animal feed, or raw materials for the chemical industry can create a diversified revenue stream.

“Additionally, by converting by-products or residual algae from biofuel production into high-value products such as biofertilizers, animal feed, or raw materials for the chemical industry, a diversified revenue stream can be created.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

Economic viability remains the primary barrier to widespread adoption of algae-based CCUS.

“However, despite recent technological advancements that have supported the growth of algae-based CCUS, economic viability remains the primary barrier to widespread adoption.”

• Also stated in: § Economic viability remains the primary barrier to the large-scale industrial adoption of algae-based CCUS. · plain

  “Economic viability remains the primary barrier to the large-scale industrial adoption of algae-based CCUS.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

Recent advancements in enhancing algal traits, improving cultivation techniques, optimizing cultivation systems and parameters, and refining carbon sources have significantly increased efficiency of carbon capture by algae.

“In recent years, advancements in enhancing algal traits, improving cultivation techniques, optimizing cultivation systems and their parameters, and refining carbon sources have significantly increased the efficiency of carbon capture by algae.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Algae capture atmospheric CO2 through photosynthesis, converting it into organic biomass, which is then used to produce high-value bioenergy.

May combine two claims.

Compared with other industrial carbon capture and storage techniques, photosynthetic MICP is more environmentally friendly and cost-effective.

“Furthermore, compared with other industrial carbon capture and storage techniques, photosynthetic MICP is more environmentally friendly and cost-effective.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Amyloglucosidase has an optimal temperature of 20-70 • C and an optimal pH of 3.50-5.50 and is applicable to microalgae.

“Amyloglucosidase | 20-70 • C | 3.50-5.50 | Microalgae | [217]”

• cites [217] Dura, 2014, Functionality of Porous Starch Obtained by Amylase or Amyloglucosidase Treatments, Carbohydr. Polym. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Cellulase has an optimal temperature of 30-45 • C and an optimal pH of 4.5-5 and is applicable to macroalgae.

“Cellulase | | 30-45 • C | 4.5-5 | Macroalgae | [216]”

• cites [216] Sohail, 2009, Cellulase Production from Aspergillus Niger MS82: Effect of Temperature and PH, New Biotechnol. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Xylose-fermenting microorganisms, including Candida shehatae and Pichia stipitis, ferment pentoses.

“Xylose-fermenting microorganisms, including Candida shehatae and Pichia stipitis”

• cites [193] Li, 2014, An Overview of Algae Bioethanol Production, Int. J. Energy Res. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

β-glucosidase has an optimal temperature of less than 80 • C and an optimal pH of 4.0-6.5 and is applicable to macroalgae.

“β-glucosidase | | less than 80 • C | 4.0-6.5 | Macroalgae | [219]”

• cites [219] Ratuchne, A., and Knob, A. (2021). A New and Unusual β-Glucosidase from Aspergillus Fumigatus: Catalytic Activity at High Temperatures and Glucose Tolerance. Biocatal. Agric. Biotechnol., 35. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Combining this method with other pretreatments significantly accelerates saccharification.

“Combining this method with other High energy requirement pretreatments significantly accelerates saccharification;”

• cites [199] Yoon, 2012, Improvement of Saccharification Process for Bioethanol Production from Undaria sp. by Gamma Irradiation, Radiat. Phys. Chem. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites [200] Budarin, 2011, Microwave-Mediated Pyrolysis of Macro-Algae, Green. Chem. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

α-amylase has an optimal temperature of 95-115 • C and an optimal pH of 5.0-7.5 and is applicable to microalgae.

“α-amylase | | 95-115 • C | 5.0-7.5 | Microalgae | [218]”

• cites [218] Timilsina, P.M., Pandey, G.R., Shrestha, A., Ojha, M., and Karki, T.B. (2020). Purification and Characterization of a Noble Thermostable Algal Starch Liquefying Alpha-Amylase from Aeribacillus Pallidus BTPS-2 Isolated from Geothermal Spring of Nepal. Biotechnol. Rep., 28. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Microwave irradiation is suitable for microalgae.

“suitable for microalgae Microwave irradiation is”

• cites [199] Yoon, 2012, Improvement of Saccharification Process for Bioethanol Production from Undaria sp. by Gamma Irradiation, Radiat. Phys. Chem. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites [200] Budarin, 2011, Microwave-Mediated Pyrolysis of Macro-Algae, Green. Chem. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Gamma irradiation is suitable for macroalgae with recalcitrant cellulose structures.

“Gamma irradiation is suitable for macroalgae with recalcitrant cellulose structures”

• cites [199] Yoon, 2012, Improvement of Saccharification Process for Bioethanol Production from Undaria sp. by Gamma Irradiation, Radiat. Phys. Chem. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites [200] Budarin, 2011, Microwave-Mediated Pyrolysis of Macro-Algae, Green. Chem. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Specific fermentation procedures and production capacity conditions are required for pentose fermentation.

“Specific fermentation procedures and production capacity. conditions are required;”

• cites [193] Li, 2014, An Overview of Algae Bioethanol Production, Int. J. Energy Res. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

This method has a high energy requirement.

“High energy requirement”

• cites [199] Yoon, 2012, Improvement of Saccharification Process for Bioethanol Production from Undaria sp. by Gamma Irradiation, Radiat. Phys. Chem. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites [200] Budarin, 2011, Microwave-Mediated Pyrolysis of Macro-Algae, Green. Chem. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Repeated batch operations can enhance bioethanol production.

“Repeated batch operations can enhance bioethanol”

• cites [193] Li, 2014, An Overview of Algae Bioethanol Production, Int. J. Energy Res. sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.