The DOI matches its Crossref record; 18 of the 19 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
Psychometric properties of the 42-item and 21-item versions of the Depression Anxiety Stress Scales in clinical groups and a community sample.
Abstract
The factor structure, reliability, and validity of the Depression Anxiety Stress Scales (DASS; S. H. Lovibond & P. F. Lovibond, 1995) and the 21-item short form of these measures (DASS-21) were examined in nonclinical volunteers (n = 49) and patients with Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (4th ed.; American Psychiatric Association, 1994) diagnoses of panic disorder (n = 67), obsessive-compulsive disorder (n = 54), social phobia (n = 74), specific phobia (n = 17), and major depressive disorder (n = 46). This study replicates previous findings indicating that the DASS distinguishes well between features of depression, physical arousal, and psychological tension and agitation and extends these observations to the DASS-21. In addition, the internal consistency and concurrent validity of the DASS and DASS-21 were in the acceptable to excellent ranges. Mean scores for the various groups were similar to those in previous research, and in the expected direction. The implications of these findings are discussed.
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In the citing paper
“Factor analysis of the 21-item version yields three factors and internal consistency for the subscales range from good to excellent (Antony, Bieling, Cox, Enns, & Swinson, 1998). The measure also demonstrates strong correlations with other measures of general distress in clinical (Antony et al., 1998) and nonclinical samples (Henry & Crawford, 2005).”
From Distress and avoidance in generalized anxiety disorder: Exploring the relationships with intolerance of uncertainty and worry (2010) · cites this paper as Antony, Bieling, Cox, Enns, & Swinson, 1998
In the citing paper
“The DASS-21 demonstrates high internal consistency and concurrent validity indicating that it distinguishes well between features of depression, anxiety, and stress (Antony, Cox, Enns, Bieling, & Swinson, 1998).”
From Randomized pilot trial of cognitive-behavioral therapy and acceptance-based behavioral therapy in the treatment of Spanish-speaking Latino primary care patients with generalized anxiety disorder (2021) · cites this paper as Antony, Cox, Enns, Bieling, & Swinson, 1998
In the citing paper
“Depression Anxiety Stress Scale – 21-item version (DASS-21; Lovibond & Lovibond, 1995) has separate, reliable and valid self-report scales for depression, anxiety (i.e., anxious arousal), and stress (i.e., general anxiety and tension) (Antony, Bieling et al., 1998).”
From A randomized clinical trial comparing an acceptance-based behavior therapy to applied relaxation for generalized anxiety disorder (2013) · cites this paper as Antony, Bieling et al., 1998
In the citing paper
“The DASS-21 has demonstrated excellent internal consistency (α from .88 to .94; Antony, Bieling, Cox, Enns, & Swinson, 1998) and the longer 42-item version has demonstrated adequate test-retest reliability (Brown, Chorpita, Korotitsch, & Barlow, 1997).”
From A Fresh Look at Potential Mechanisms of Change in Applied Relaxation for Generalized Anxiety Disorder: A Case Series (2012) · cites this paper as Antony, Bieling, Cox, Enns, & Swinson, 1998
In the citing paper
“Internal consistency has previously been shown to be good (α for each scale > .87; Antony, Bieling, Cox, Enns, & Swinson, 1998), and was acceptable to good at pretreatment in the present study (αs for depression, anxiety, and stress = .86, .76, and .84, respectively).”
From Using acceptance and commitment therapy to increase self-compassion: A randomized controlled trial (2014) · cites this paper as Antony, Bieling, Cox, Enns, & Swinson, 1998
In the citing paper
“Depression Anxiety Stress Scale – 21-item version (DASS-21; Lovibond & Lovibond, 1995) has separate, reliable and valid self-report scales for depression, anxiety (i.e., anxious arousal), and stress (i.e., general anxiety and tension; Antony, Bieling et al., 1998).”
From Do treatment responders maintain their gains following a randomized clinical trial comparing an acceptance-based behavior therapy to applied relaxation for generalized anxiety disorder? (2025) · cites this paper as Antony, Bieling et al., 1998
In the citing paper
“The subscales have demonstrated good internal consistency and construct validity (Antony, Bieling, et al., 1998) and have been shown to be sensitive to change across hospitalization for clients with a primary diagnosis of depression (Page, Hooke, & Morrison, 2007).”
From Decentering as a potential common mechanism across two therapies for generalized anxiety disorder (2015) · cites this paper as Antony, Bieling, et al., 1998
In the citing paper
“Research summarized across 206 studies indicates that the SUS items load onto a single latent factor, have a high level of internal consistency (Cronbach’s alpha = .91), and that the measure can be used to distinguish between more and less usable program.34”
From Feasibility of a Prototype Web-Based Acceptance and Commitment Therapy Prevention Program for College Students. (2014) · cites this paper as [34]
In the citing paper
“The DASS-21 is a frequently used measure in both clinical and research settings and has demonstrated excellent validity and internal consistency (Antony et al., 1998).”
From A mixed-methods study of problematic social media use, attention dysregulation, and social media use motives (2023) · cites this paper as Antony et al., 1998
In the citing paper
“The scale has good psychometric properties (Antony et al ., 1998).”
From Effectiveness and predictors of group cognitive behaviour therapy outcome for generalised anxiety disorder in an out-patient hospital setting (2024) · cites this paper as Antony et al., 1998
In the citing paper
“The scale has demonstrated strong psychometric properties and is routinely used in research and clinical practice [51–53].”
From Feasibility, acceptability, and initial outcomes of a psychological adjustment and reintegration program for transitioned military veterans (2024) · cites this paper as [52]
In the citing paper
“The DASS-21 is reliable and valid in diverse samples, including among people with CHCs, and has been used for ACT-based interventions, with a mean Cronbach's alpha of 0.91 showing high internal consistency (Antony et al., 1998).”
From ACT2COPE: A pilot randomised trial of a brief online acceptance and commitment therapy intervention for people living with chronic health conditions during the COVID-19 pandemic (2023) · cites this paper as Antony et al., 1998
In the citing paper
“Valid and reliable measures of psychological distress or emotional symptomatology such as the Depression Anxiety and Stress Scales (DASS-21; Antony et al., 1998) and the Kessler Psychological Distress Scale (K-10; Kessler et al., 2002) were considered as general distress outcomes.”
From Revisión sistemática y metaanálisis de intervenciones transdiagnósticas en línea de tercera generación (2023) · cites this paper as Antony et al., 1998
In the citing paper
“The total score represents a broader dimension of psychological distress, and each subscale has high internal consistency (α = 0.87 to 0.94) and high concurrent validity (Antony et al., 1998).”
From A naturalistic study of emotion regulation-enhanced cognitive-behavioral group therapy for hoarding disorder in a community setting (2022) · cites this paper as Antony et al., 1998
In the citing paper
“The DASS-21 has been shown to have good psychometric properties, i.e., internal consistency: Cronbach's alphas were 0.94 for Depression, 0.87 for Anxiety, and 0.91 for Stress; concurrent validity indices above 0.60 with several other inventories) both in clinical and non-clinical samples75”
From Mindfulness-based online intervention increases well-being and decreases stress after Covid-19 lockdown (2022) · cites this paper as [75]
In the citing paper
“It is recommended to use each subscale separately instead of their sum as a unified factor 28”
From Relationships between worry and depressive symptoms during two group therapies for generalized anxiety disorder (2022) · cites this paper as [28]
In the citing paper
“The DASS-21 has been shown to have good internal consistency: Cronbach’s alphas were 0.94 for Depression, 0.87 for Anxiety, and 0.91 for Stress (63).”
From The Evolution of Psychological and Behavioral Consequences of Self-Isolation During Lockdown: A Longitudinal Study Across United Kingdom and Italy (2022) · cites this paper as [63]
In the citing paper
“The Depression Anxiety Stress Scale-21 (DASS-21) is a 21-item scale developed by Lovibond and Lovibond (1995) to assess individuals’ individuals’ depression, anxiety, and stress levels (Antony et al., 1998).”
From Measuring self-as-context in Chinese college students: Validity and reliability of the Chinese version of self-as-context scale (C-SACS) (2022) · cites this paper as Antony et al., 1998
In the citing paper
“The DASS-21 subscales have shown good to excellent internal consistency ( α = .87 to .94) and concurrent validity in clinical and non-clinical samples (Antony et al. 1998).”
From Development and Validation of the Equanimity Scale-16 (2021) · cites this paper as Antony et al. 1998
In the citing paper
“Antony et al. (1998) observed an alpha of 0.94 for Depression, 0.91 for Stress, and 0.87 for anxiety.”
From Dealing With the Pandemic of COVID-19 in Portugal: On the Important Role of Positivity, Experiential Avoidance, and Coping Strategies (2021) · cites this paper as Antony et al., 1998
In the citing paper
“The DASS-21 has been used with adolescent samples and is reported to have a Cronbach alpha of .87 for depression, .79 for anxiety, and .83 for the stress subscales [41].”
From Feasibility and effectiveness of a web-based positive psychology program for youth mental health: Randomized controlled trial (2014) · cites this paper as [41]
In the citing paper
“The DASS-21 has acceptable to excellent internal consistency and concurrent validity in clinical and non-clinical populations”
From The feasibility and preliminary effects of a pilot randomized controlled trial: Videoconferencing acceptance and commitment therapy in distressed family caregivers of people with dementia. (2023) · cites this paper as Antony et al., 1998
In the citing paper
“We used the short version as it is shown to have as good reliability and validity as the long version (Cronbach’s alpha 0.94, 0.87 and 0.91 for the depression, anxiety and stress subscales respectively, Antony et al. 1998; Ng et al. 2007), along with good construct validity (Henry and Crawford 2005).”
From Experiences of autism acceptance and mental health in autistic adults (2018) · cites this paper as Antony et al. 1998
In the citing paper
“The DASS-21 has been found to be a valid and reliable measure of negative affect in both clinical and general population samples and scores on the shortened form have been found to be highly correlated with scores on the longer version of the scale [62, 63].”
From A structural equation model of the relationship between insomnia, negative affect, and paranoid thinking (2017) · cites this paper as [62]
In the citing paper
“The DASS-21 has been found to be a valid and reliable measure of negative affect in both clinical and general population samples and scores on the shortened form have been found to be highly correlated with scores on the longer version of the scale [62, 63].”
From A structural equation model of the relationship between insomnia, negative affect, and paranoid thinking (2017) · cites this paper as [62]
In the citing paper
“The DASS21 has demonstrated high internal consistency for the three subscales of depression, anxiety, and stress in previous administrations (42).”
From Predicting Symptoms of Depression and Anxiety Using Smartphone and Wearable Data (2021) · cites this paper as [42]
In the citing paper
“The DASS-21 is a valid and reliable measure for use in non-clinical samples (Antony et al. 1998)”
From Dispositional Mindfulness and Psychological Health: a Systematic Review (2018) · cites this paper as Antony et al. 1998
In the citing paper
“The DASS-21 subscales have Cronbach ' s alphas of .94 for Depression, .87 for Anxiety and .91 for Stress [1].”
From The development of compassionate engagement and action scales for self and others (2017) · cites this paper as [1]
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“The DASS-21 demonstrates high reliability and is widely accepted as being valid for use with college-aged participants (Antony et al., 1998; Sinclair et al., 2012).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialSeidl, E., Venz, J., Ollmann, T. M., Voss, C., Hoyer, J., Pieper, L., & Beesdo‐Baum, K. (2021) · Depression and Anxiety · doi:10.1002/da.23133 · Cited by 19
Intrusions in trauma and psychosis: Information processing and phenomenology
Marks, E. M., Steel, C., & Peters, E. R. (2012) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s0033291712000505 · Cited by 19
Selective attention in perfectionism: Dissociating valence from perfectionism-relevance
Howell, J. A., McEvoy, P. M., Grafton, B., Macleod, C., Kane, R. T., Anderson, R. A., & Egan, S. J. (2016) · Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.jbtep.2016.01.004 · Cited by 20
Smith, S. G., Green, S. M. C., Ellison, R., Foy, R., Graham, C. D., Mason, E., French, D. P., Hall, L. H., Wilkes, H., McNaught, E., et al. (2023) · BMJ Open · doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2022-069971 · Cited by 20
Parsons, E. M., Dreyer-Oren, S. E., Magee, J. C., & Clerkin, E. M. (2019) · Journal of Nervous & Mental Disease · doi:10.1097/nmd.0000000000000993 · Cited by 19
Fergus, T. A., & Bardeen, J. R. (2017) · Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy · doi:10.1037/tra0000247 · Cited by 19
An effectiveness study of a CBT group program for women with breast cancer
Beatty, L., & Koczwara, B. (2010) · Clinical Psychologist · doi:10.1080/13284207.2010.500307 · Cited by 18
Online resilience support groups during the COVID-19 pandemic: the Philippine experience
Hechanova, M. R., Alianan, Jr., Jocson, R. M., & Villasanta, A. P. (2022) · Mental Health and Social Inclusion · doi:10.1108/mhsi-06-2021-0038 · Cited by 16
Alarachi, A., Merrifield, C., Rowa, K., & McCabe, R. E. (2024) · Assessment · doi:10.1177/10731911231225190 · Cited by 17
Insomnia and obsessive-compulsive symptom dimensions: The mediating role of anxiety and depression
Hellberg, S. N., Buchholz, J. L., & Abramowitz, J. S. (2019) · Journal of Obsessive-Compulsive and Related Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jocrd.2019.100482 · Cited by 17
Do obsessive beliefs predict body image disturbance?
Blakey, S. M., Abramowitz, J. S., & Mahaffey, B. L. (2016) · Journal of Obsessive-Compulsive and Related Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jocrd.2016.08.007 · Cited by 17
Scrupulosity and contamination OCD are not associated with deficits in response inhibition
Rasmussen, J., Siev, J., Abramovitch, A., & Wilhelm, S. (2016) · Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.jbtep.2015.06.004 · Cited by 16
Mikocka-Walus, A., & Andrews, J. M. (2016) · Gastroenterology Nursing · doi:10.1097/sga.0000000000000182 · Cited by 16
Sagon, A. L., Danitz, S. B., Suvak, M. K., & Orsillo, S. M. (2018) · Journal of Contextual Behavioral Science · doi:10.1016/j.jcbs.2018.06.004 · Cited by 16
Bright, S., Gringart, E., Blatchford, E., & Bettinson, S. (2021) · Australian Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1080/00049530.2021.1882266 · Cited by 16
“The depression, anxiety and stress scale-21 (DASS-21) The DASS-21 measures depression, anxiety and stress (Antony et al., 1998).”
Hekmati, I., Ranjbar, H. A., & HajiSaghati, R. (2020) · Journal of Contextual Behavioral Science · doi:10.1016/j.jcbs.2020.05.004 · Cited by 14
Zeljic, K., Zhang, Y., Qiu, X., Chen, X., Gong, H., Jin, H., Zhang, C., & Storch, E. A. (2020) · Journal of Cognitive Psychotherapy · doi:10.1891/0889-8391.34.1.58 · Cited by 15
Yap, A. U., & Marpaung, C. (2023) · Oral Diseases · doi:10.1111/odi.14343 · Cited by 15
Kopilaš, V., Hasratian, A. M., Martinelli, L., Ivkić, G., Brajković, L., & Gajović, S. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.621633 · Cited by 15
Profiles of Emotion Regulation in Young People Accessing Youth Mental Health and Drug Treatment
Sloan, E., Hall, K., Youssef, G. J., Moulding, R., Mildred, H., & Staiger, P. K. (2019) · Cognitive Therapy and Research · doi:10.1007/s10608-019-10003-4 · Cited by 15
Brief psycho-education affects circadian variability in nicotine craving during cessation
Nosen, E., & Woody, S. R. (2013) · Drug and Alcohol Dependence · doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2013.02.017 · Cited by 15
Responsibility causes reassurance seeking, too: An experimental investigation
Leonhart, M. W., & Radomsky, A. S. (2019) · Journal of Obsessive-Compulsive and Related Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jocrd.2017.10.005 · Cited by 15
Treatment expectancy for anxiety change and response to cognitive behavioral therapy for OCD
Vorstenbosch, V., & Laposa, J. M. (2015) · Journal of Obsessive-Compulsive and Related Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jocrd.2015.02.003 · Cited by 14
The Spanish version of the believability of anxious feelings and Thoughts Questionnaire
Ruiz, F., Odriozola-González, P., & Suárez-Falcón, J. (2014) · Psicothema · doi:10.7334/psicothema2013.221 · Cited by 13
Confirmation and Validation of the Equanimity Scale-16 (ES-16)
Cheever, J., Cayoun, B. A., Elphinstone, B., & Shires, A. G. (2023) · Mindfulness · doi:10.1007/s12671-022-02029-9 · Cited by 14
Secure attachment priming protects against relapse of fear in young adults
Toumbelekis, M., Liddell, B. J., & Bryant, R. A. (2021) · Translational Psychiatry · doi:10.1038/s41398-021-01715-x · Cited by 15
Fishbein, J. N., Baer, R. A., Correll, J., & Arch, J. J. (2022) · Assessment · doi:10.1177/1073191120980061 · Cited by 14
(2021) · Cyprus Turkish Journal of Psychiatry & Psychology · doi:10.35365/ctjpp.21.2.12 · Cited by 14
Imagery versus verbal interpretive cognitive bias modification for compulsive checking
Black, M. J., & Grisham, J. R. (2016) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.brat.2016.05.009 · Cited by 13
Levin, M. E., Lillis, J., & Hayes, S. C. (2012) · Sexual Addiction & Compulsivity · doi:10.1080/10720162.2012.657150 · Cited by 108
Fang, S., Huang, M., & Wang, Y. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2022.1051661 · Cited by 12
“Depression anxiety stress scale-21 – Chinese version The Depression Anxiety Stress Scale-21 (DASS-21) is a 21-item scale developed by Lovibond and Lovibond (1995) to assess individuals’ individuals’ depression, anxiety, and stress levels (Antony et al., 1998).”
BackgroundBeliefs about losing control and other OCD-related cognitions: An experimental investigation
Sandstrom, A., & Radomsky, A. S. (2024) · Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.jbtep.2023.101919 · Cited by 12
Acceptance and Commitment Therapy in Group Format for College Students
Christodoulou, V., Flaxman, P. E., & Lloyd, J. (2021) · Journal of College Counseling · doi:10.1002/jocc.12192 · Cited by 12
Grisham, J. R., Yap, K., Isemann, S., Svehla, J., Briggs, N., & Norberg, M. M. (2022) · Journal of Affective Disorders Reports · doi:10.1016/j.jadr.2022.100450 · Cited by 11
“The total score represents a broader dimension of psychological distress, and each subscale has high internal consistency ( α = 0.87 to 0.94) and high concurrent validity (Antony et al., 1998).”
InfluentialPredictive Validity and Response Shift in the Equanimity Scale-16
Shires, A., Osborne, S., Cayoun, B. A., Williams, E., & Rogers, K. (2023) · Mindfulness · doi:10.1007/s12671-023-02257-7 · Cited by 8
Kraemer, K. M., & McLeish, A. (2019) · Psychology, Health & Medicine · doi:10.1080/13548506.2018.1529326 · Cited by 7
Ehman, A. C., & Gross, A. M. (2019) · Clinical Case Studies · doi:10.1177/1534650118804886 · Cited by 8
Fang, S., Ding, D., Huang, M., & Zheng, Q. (2024) · Journal of Contextual Behavioral Science · doi:10.1016/j.jcbs.2024.100769 · Cited by 8
Metadata
- Authors
- Antony, M. M., Bieling, P. J., Cox, B. J., Enns, M. W., & Swinson, R. P.
- Affiliations
- St. Joseph’s Healthcare Hamilton (CA)
- Venue
- Psychological Assessment
- Published
- 1998-06
- Volume
- 10
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 176-181
- ISSN
- 1040-3590 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-134X
- OpenAlex
- W2083164476
- Semantic Scholar
- 83fb0fc3e5ef9d1e74bc6aec151380d7798bb42c
- Cited by
- 4,874
- References
- 19
- Citations by year
- 2026: 227 · 2025: 296 · 2024: 346 · 2023: 402 · 2022: 388 · 2021: 481 · 2020: 332 · 2019: 254 · 2018: 268 · 2017: 241 · 2016: 252 · 2015: 224 · 2014: 223 · 2013: 201 · 2012: 146
- FWCI
- 8.40
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Psychological Assessment (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive Processes
- Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › Management Science and Operations Research › Psychometric Methodologies and Testing
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Mental Health Research Topics
- Keywords
- DASS, DASS-21, psychometric properties, factor structure, internal consistency, concurrent validity, depression, anxiety, stress, panic disorder, obsessive-compulsive disorder, social anxiety disorder, specific phobia, major depressive disorder, short-form questionnaire
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