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Cited by 242Virtual Reality Applications and ImpactsSocial Robot Interaction and HRIEmbodied and Extended Cognition

Conversations between self and self as Sigmund Freud—A virtual body ownership paradigm for self counselling

Open access
Osimo, Sofia Adelaide, Pizarro, Rodrigo, Spanlang, Bernhard, Slater, Mel·2015·Scientific Reports
DOI 10.1038/srep13899PMC PMC4564809
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Abstract

When people see a life-sized virtual body (VB) from first person perspective in virtual reality they are likely to have the perceptual illusion that it is their body. Additionally such virtual embodiment can lead to changes in perception, implicit attitudes and behaviour based on attributes of the VB. To date the changes that have been studied are as a result of being embodied in a body representative of particular social groups (e.g., children and other race). In our experiment participants alternately switched between a VB closely resembling themselves where they described a personal problem and a VB representing Dr Sigmund Freud, from which they offered themselves counselling. Here we show that when the counsellor resembles Freud participants improve their mood, compared to the counsellor being a self-representation. The improvement was greater when the Freud VB moved synchronously with the participant, compared to asynchronously. Synchronous VB movement was associated with a much stronger illusion of ownership over the Freud body. This suggests that this form of embodied perspective taking can lead to sufficient detachment from habitual ways of thinking about personal problems, so as to improve the outcome and demonstrates the power of virtual body ownership to effect cognitive changes.

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

In immersive virtual reality, male participants alternately embodied a lookalike self and a virtual Sigmund Freud counsellor to discuss a personal problem. Embodiment as Freud improved mood and happiness more than embodiment as the self, especially when the Freud body moved synchronously with the participant and elicited stronger body ownership.

Key findings

  • Body ownership and agency over the counsellor body were substantially higher with visuomotor synchrony than asynchrony: for MeDown, MeMirror, and MyMovements, Wilcoxon rank-sum tests gave P = 0.003, 0.015, and 0.0001, respectively.
  • In the within-groups experiment (n = 12), the Freud counsellor produced greater mood improvement than the Self counsellor: the marginal difference in dPOMSTotal had a 95% CI of −8.02 to −0.14, and dSAMHappy Freud minus Self had a 95% CI of 0.17 to 1.43.
  • Overall mood improved pre- to post-experiment: POMS differences were significant in the Async condition (P = 0.005) and Sync condition (P = 0.0001); SAMHappy differences were significant in Async (P = 0.027) and Sync (P = 0.0003).
  • In the between-groups comparison of visuomotor conditions, dPOMSTotal showed no significant main or interaction effect for Visuomotor, but greater body ownership over the Freud body (MyBodyPCA) interacted with SUDS such that greater ownership was associated with greater mood improvement.

Methods

  • Experiment 1 was a within-groups design (n = 12): each participant discussed a different personal problem one week apart, once with a Freud counsellor and once with a lookalike Self counsellor, counterbalanced, with visuomotor synchrony. Experiment 2 added 10 participants who always had the Freud counsellor but with visuomotor asynchrony while embodied as Freud, compared with the 12 synchronous Freud cases from Experiment 1.
  • Participants were 22 males, mean ± SD age 24 ± 5, recruited around the University of Barcelona; they were body-scanned to create lookalike avatars, wore an Oculus DK2 HMD and XSens MVN motion capture suit, and in the Freud condition their recorded voice was pitch-lowered by 2 semitones.
  • Measures included SUDS for problem severity screening, POMS and Self Assessment Manikin (SAMHappy, SAMIntensity) before and after, and body-ownership/agency questions (MeDown, MeMirror, MyMovements, LikeMe); MeDown and MeMirror were combined via polychoric PCA into MyBodyPCA. Analyses used non-parametric tests where possible, mixed-effects regression for Experiment 1, and ANCOVA for Experiment 2.

Limitations

  • The paper states that the experiment cannot determine whether the result is due to the Freud body specifically, with its strong therapy association, or whether another body would have worked as well.
  • The paper states that participants presented fairly mild personal problems, outcomes were assessed only through questionnaires, and further study is needed with more severe issues, actual outcomes, and long-term follow-up.
  • Evident from the text: the sample was small (22 males total), all male, and recruited from a university campus, limiting generalizability; the qualitative interview data were not analyzed in this paper.

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1038/srep13899

Cites

54 of 54 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Nothing to recompute.

Claims the paper makes

0 of 34 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged

  • Findingown data

    When the counsellor resembles Freud, participants improve their mood, compared to the counsellor being a self-representation.

    “Here we show that when the counsellor resembles Freud participants improve their mood, compared to the counsellor being a self-representation.”
    • Also stated in: § Comparison of counsellors—Profile of Mood State · hedged
      “also indicating that the Freud condition results in a greater decrease in dPOMSTotal (corresponding to an improvement in mood) compared to the Self condition.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data

    Experiment 2 showed that the Freud body tended to result in greater mood improvement and happiness in the visuomotor synchronous condition than in the asynchronous condition.

    “Experiment 2 showed that the Freud body tended to result in greater mood improvement and happiness in the visuomotor synchronous condition than in the asynchronous condition.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data

    For LikeMe, the difference between synchronous and asynchronous Freud counsellor conditions has P = 0.110.

    “For LikeMe the difference has P = 0.110”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Findingown data

    Comparing PrePOMS with PostPOMS in the Async condition, the difference is significant (Wilcoxon signed-rank test, P = 0.005).

    “Comparing PrePOMS with PostPOMS in the Async condition the difference is significant (Wilcoxon signed-rank test, P = 0.005).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Findingown data

    Table 3 shows significant main effects of SUDS and Counsellor for dSAMHappy.

    “Table 3 shows significant main effects of SUDS and Counsellor for dSAMHappy.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • May combine two claims. 29
  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 34

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The improvement in mood is related to the type of counsellor, and greater for the Freud counsellor.

    “The interaction effect shows that this improvement in mood is related to the type of counsellor, and greater for the Freud counsellor.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Overall under all conditions the self-counselling experience was positively evaluated by participants and tended to improve mood and happiness.

    “Overall under all conditions the self-counselling experience was positively evaluated by participants (Supplementary Tables 1–4) and tended to improve mood and happiness (Fig. 3).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingnone given

    There are no differences in SAMIntensity.

    “(There are no differences in SAMIntensity).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    For the between-groups experiment comparing the Freud counsellor between synchronous and asynchronous conditions, the differences for MeDown, MeMirror and MyMovements are significant (P = 0.003, 0.015, 0.0001 respectively, Wilcoxon rank sum tests).

    “For the between groups experiment we compare the Freud counsellor representation between the synchronous and asynchronous conditions. For MeDown, MeMirror and MyMovements the differences are significant (P = 0.003, 0.015, 0.0001 respectively Wilcoxon rank sum tests).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Table 5 shows a negative association between dPOMSTotal and the interaction between the ownership illusion and SUDS, where the greater the level of body ownership the greater the improvement in mood (smaller dPOMSTotal).

    “Table 5 shows a negative association between dPOMSTotal and the interaction between the ownership illusion and SUDS, where the greater level of body ownership the greater the improvement in mood (i.e., smaller dPOMSTotal).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Under all conditions, on average POMS scores decreased and SAMHappy scores increased as a result of the experimental intervention, showing an overall improvement of mood and happiness.

    “Figure 3 suggests that under all conditions on the average the POMS scores decreased as a result of the experimental intervention and the SAMHappy scores increased, showing an overall improvement of mood and happiness.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The lookalike virtual counsellor was perceived as looking physically like the participant (LikeMe) in the synchronous condition but not in the asynchronous condition.

    “The lookalike virtual counsellor was perceived as looking physically like the participant (LikeMe) in the synchronous condition but not in the asynchronous”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    For POMS Sync, SAMHappy Async and SAMHappy Sync, the significance levels are 0.0001, 0.027 and 0.0003 respectively.

    “For POMS Sync, SAMHappy Async and SAMHappy Sync the corresponding significance levels are 0.0001, 0.027 and 0.0003 respectively.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    In experiment 2, using ANCOVA of dPOMSTotal on Visuomotor and SUDS, there is no significant main or interaction effect for Visuomotor.

    “There is no significant main or interaction effect for Visuomotor.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    MyMovements verifies the success of the real-time mapping of body movements to the movements of the virtual character, and was perceived by participants as their own body movement (IQR 6-7, median 7 in synchronous; IQR 1-3, median 1 in asynchronous).

    “MyMovements verifies the success of the real-time mapping of body movements to the movements of the virtual character—this was perceived by participants as their own body movement (the interquartile range is between 6 and 7 with the median at 7 in the synchronous condition compared with an IQR between 1 and 3 and median of 1 in the asynchronous condition).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    There are no significant main or interaction effects for dSAMIntensity on SUDS, Visuomotor, or MyBodyPCA.

    “However, there are no significant main or interaction effects for dSAMIntensity on SUDS, Visuomotor, or MyBodyPCA.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Findingreasoning

    The voice transformation produced a deeper voice without distorting length or speed of audio.

    “This had the effect of producing a deeper voice without distorting either the length or the speed of the audio.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    A pitch lowering of 2 semitones was found to be sufficient to make the voice not recognizable as the participants' own, but not unrealistically low.

    “A distortion of 2 semitones was found to be sufficient to make the voice not recognizable as the participants’ own, but not unrealistically low.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisenone given

    To date, the changes studied as a result of virtual embodiment are those from being embodied in a body representative of particular social groups (e.g., children and other race).

    “To date the changes that have been studied are as a result of being embodied in a body representative of particular social groups (e.g., children and other race).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductnone given

    Participants gave written informed consent.

    “Participants gave written informed consent.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    IVR provides a powerful method for producing body ownership illusions, and the equivalent illusion to the RHI has been demonstrated using IVR.

    “IVR provides a particularly powerful method for the production of such body ownership illusions and the equivalent illusion to the RHI has been demonstrated using this12.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [12] source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductreasoning

    Experiment 2 was a between-groups design where the counsellor was always the Freud body, and the comparison was between visuomotor synchrony (n=12 from experiment 1 Freud condition) and visuomotor asynchrony (n=10).

    “This defines the second conceptually distinct experiment (experiment 2) where the counsellor was always the Freud body, and the comparison was between visuomotor synchrony (n = 12 from the first experiment in the Freud condition) and visuomotor asynchrony (n = 10 in the Async condition). Hence this was a between groups design.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductcitation

    Body ownership was assessed for the counsellor body through two questions, MeDown and MeMirror.

    “Body ownership was assessed for the counsellor body through two questions used in previous studies16, referred to as MeDown and MeMirror in Table 1.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [16] source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductnone given

    Experiment 1 was a within-groups design (n=12) with each participant experiencing two trials separated by one week, each week discussing a different problem with a counsellor, one week Freud and the other Self, counterbalanced in order.

    “The first (experiment 1) was a within-groups design (n = 12). Each participant experienced two trials separated by one week. Each week they discussed a different problem with a counsellor, but one week the counsellor was the Freud body and the other week it was the lookalike body (Self), counterbalanced in order.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductnone given

    The experiment was approved by the Comisión de Bioética de la Universitat de Barcelona and carried out in accordance with that approval.

    “The experiment was approved by the Comisión de Bioética de la Universitat de Barcelona and carried out in accordance with that approval.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    Inner speech is a critical component of self awareness and self-related processing.

    “Inner speech (talking to yourself) is considered a critical component of self awareness1 and self-related processing2.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [1]

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [2] source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    A head-mounted display together with a full body motion capture system can provide visuomotor synchrony, where the virtual body moves in correspondence with real body movements, and this is a powerful method to induce body ownership and agency over the virtual body.

    “Moreover a HMD together with a full body motion capture system can be used to provide visuomotor synchrony, where the virtual body moves in correspondence with real body movements15—a powerful method to induce not just body ownership but a strong sense of agency over the virtual body1617.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [15] source

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    • cites [16] source

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    • cites [17] source

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductown data

    On a range of demographic variables there were no significant differences between the groups.

    “On a range of demographic variables there were no significant differences between the groups (Supplementary Table 5).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Inner speech may consist of positive or negative self evaluations, which activate different brain regions.

    “Inner speech may consist of positive or negative self evaluations (if not neutral), which have been shown to activate different brain regions3.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [3] source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductreasoning

    The only difference between the synchronous and asynchronous conditions was visuomotor synchrony or asynchrony while embodied as Freud.

    “The only difference between the two conditions was visuomotor synchrony or asynchrony while embodied as Freud.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationreasoning

    This explanation does not apply to the setup of this experiment since there is no aspect that concerns bias towards an outgroup.

    “However, this explanation does not apply to the quite different setup of this experiment since there is no aspect that concerns bias towards an outgroup.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

    Interpretationreasoning

    What participants lack is perhaps the ability to step back and view the problem from the point of view of someone else with expertise at dealing with problems.

    “What they lack perhaps is the ability to step back and be able view the problem from the point of view of being someone else who has some expertise at dealing with problems.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The method presented here does not require artificial intelligence to drive the therapist, because the therapist is also the client embodied in the counsellor body.

    “However, such approaches are in sharp contrast to the method presented here, which of course does not require any artificial intelligence to drive the therapist, since the ‘therapist’ is actually also the client, embodied in the counsellor body.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Perspective taking involves putting oneself in the shoes of another; it is an imaginal and cognitive change of location to the position of another.

    “Perspective taking involves putting oneself in the shoes of another. It is an imaginal and cognitive change of location to the position of another.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [35] source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    In the empty chair technique, clients typically argue with an imaginary significant other sitting across from them in an empty chair, and may eventually sit in that chair and experience and argue about the problem from the perspective of the significant other.

    “In this method clients in a therapy session typically argue with an imaginary significant other sitting across from them in an empty chair. This may also involve clients eventually sitting in that chair and then experiencing and arguing about the problem from the perspective of the significant other.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [37]

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    • cites [38] source

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Our paradigm resembles the empty chair technique, and a variant of it could be used for that purpose, but it is not the same, since in our case the other is a counsellor rather than someone with whom there is a problem.

    “Our paradigm resembles this, and a variant of it could be used for that purpose, but it is not the same, since in our case the other is a counsellor rather than someone with whom there is a problem.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    In that previous experiment, those who were embodied in the child body reported a greater degree of self compassion after the experiment compared to before, with no significant change in the non-embodied group.

    “The results suggested that those who were embodied in the child body reported a greater degree of self compassion after the experiment compared to before with no significant change in the non-embodied group.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [39] source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    The use of intelligent virtual agents as therapists has been employed.

    “and also the use of intelligent virtual agents as therapists has been employed54.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [54] source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    An explanation offered for the reduction of implicit racial bias after embodiment of light-skinned participants in a dark-skinned body is based on the idea of the embodiment generating a perceptual similarity between the self and the outgroup.

    “An explanation offered for the reduction of implicit racial bias after embodiment of light-skinned participants in a dark-skinned body is based on the idea of the embodiment generating a perceptual similarity between the self and the outgroup18.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [18] source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    Since the result is different depending on whether it is the Freud or Self body, the form of the body itself must play a role, and so the result cannot simply be only to experiencing the scenario from a different perspective.

    “However, since the result is different depending on whether it is the Freud or Self body, the form of the body itself must play a role, and so the result cannot simply be only to experiencing the scenario from a different perspective.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    In both conditions of that previous experiment, participants witnessed their previous embodiment delivering the speech, but the effect of the embodied condition was greater in improving self-compassion than the non-embodied.

    “In both conditions (embodied in the child or not embodied) participants witnessed their previous embodiment delivering the speech, but the effect of the embodied condition was greater in improving self-compassion than the non-embodied.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [39] source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    In that previous experiment, participants embodied in a non-lookalike adult virtual body saw a virtual crying child and delivered a previously learned compassionate speech to the child, which then gradually stopped crying.

    “The method was employed to enable them to indirectly give compassion to themselves40. In the virtual reality while embodied in a (non-lookalike) adult virtual body they saw a virtual crying child and delivered a previously learned compassionate speech to the child, that then gradually stopped crying.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [40] source

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  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    If the result were only due to the effects of conversing with oneself from a different locational perspective, then the same results should have been found for the Freud and Self body, but the results of experiment 1 contradict this.

    “In other words if our result were only due to the effects of conversing with oneself from a different locational perspective, then we should have found the same results for the Freud and Self body, but the results of experiment 1 contradicts this.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    The use of virtual reality in psychological therapy has long been well-established.

    “The use of virtual reality in psychological therapy has long been well-established53”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [53] source

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Premisenone given

    Transferring to another body cannot by itself give people access to new knowledge they did not have before.

    “Of course transferring to another body, no matter how eminent a person that body represents, cannot by itself give people access to new knowledge that they did not have before.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisereasoning

    Participants in this method are already experts on the subject matter of their problem because it pertains to themselves and their own lives.

    “The participants are already experts on the subject matter of their problem—since it pertains to themselves and their own lives.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    A practical application of perspective taking is the 'empty chair technique' of Gestalt Therapy.

    “A practical application of perspective taking is the ‘empty chair technique’ of Gestalt Therapy3738.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [37]

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [38] source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The method involves dissociation of the problem from the self and an association between the alternate self and a personal problem-solving ability.

    “This is dissociation of the problem from the self and importantly an association between the (alternate) self and a personal problem-solving ability.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Participants have full access to all necessary information about their problem in autobiographical memory.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

    Interpretationreasoning

    The method might prove to be a useful and inexpensive approach prior to accessing psychological therapy.

    “Hence as a simple method to begin to tackle uncomfortable issues in the lives of people our method might prove to be a useful and inexpensive approach prior to the step of accessing psychological therapy.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Participants have full access to all necessary information about their problem in autobiographical memory.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationnone given

    In this experiment participants presented fairly mild personal problems.

    “It should be recalled that in this experiment the participants presented fairly mild personal problems”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Interpretationnone given

    In this experiment outcome assessments were only through questionnaires.

    “and that the outcome assessments were only through questionnaires.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductcitation

    The two questionnaire variables (MeDown and MeMirror) were combined using Polychoric PCA, which accounts for the ordinal nature of the variables.

    “The two questionnaire variables (MeDown and MeMirror) were combined using Polychoric PCA26 which is a method that specifically accounts for the fact that the variables being combined are ordinal.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [26] source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductnone given

    Participants reporting a traumatic past were excluded.

    “Participants reporting having a traumatic past were excluded.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductreasoning

    The trial 2 questionnaire scores are used in the analysis of body ownership.

    “The trial 2 scores are used in the analysis of body ownership.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductreasoning

    To overcome the problem of assessing subjective body ownership, the study used a novel technique with a training period of two embodiment periods in the specific counsellor body before the main experiment.

    “To overcome this problem we used a novel technique where in a training period prior to the start of the main experiment participants had two periods of embodiment in the specific counsellor virtual body that they were going to experience later.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationreasoning

    The type of body suitable for counselling is likely to be constrained.

    “We believe, though, that the type of body that would be suitable for counselling is likely to be constrained.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductnone given

    Robust standard errors provided by Stata 13 are more conservative than normal standard errors and allow for departures from the assumptions of the statistical model.

    “These are more conservative than normal standard errors (i.e., they are larger) and allow for departures from the assumptions of the statistical model.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

    Interpretationreasoning

    Conversations between yourself and yourself as Freud (or anyone else) could be a useful and natural first approach in personal counselling.

    “Hence conversations between yourself and yourself as Freud (or anyone else) could be a useful and natural first approach in personal counselling.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
53 of 53

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The Freud body is strongly associated with therapy.

    “the body associated with this different perspective representing another person, in this case strongly associated with therapy”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    Change in mood after the experience compared to before is correlated with SUDS, since if the original level of discomfort was already low there is not much room for change.

    “It is reasonable that the change in mood after the experience compared to before might be correlated with the SUDS, since if the original level of discomfort was already low there is not much room for change.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Participants have full access to all necessary information about their problem in autobiographical memory.

    “Moreover the participants also normally have full access to all the necessary information about their problem, residing in their autobiographical memory.”
3 of 3

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

  • In the earlier study, being embodied as Freud with synchronous visuomotor feedback produced better outcomes than asynchronous feedback.

    “Moreover, being embodied as Freud with synchronous visuomotor feedback, corresponding to a strong illusion of body ownership over the Freud body, produced better outcomes compared with asynchronous visuomotor feedback corresponding to low body ownership.”

    From An experimental study of a virtual reality counselling paradigm using embodied self-dialogue (2019) · cites this paper as [2]

  • In the earlier study, self-counselling produced better mood and happiness outcomes when participants were embodied as Freud compared to a duplicate of their own body.

    “We showed in the earlier study2 that the self-counselling technique produced better outcomes, in terms of improving the mood and happiness of participants with respect to their initial problem, when participants were embodied as the counsellor in the Freud virtual body compared to the counsellor being another duplicate of their own body.”

    From An experimental study of a virtual reality counselling paradigm using embodied self-dialogue (2019) · cites this paper as [2]

  • Osimo et al. introduced a VR self-counselling technique in which participants alternate between their own virtual body and a virtual Freud body to maintain a self-conversation.

    “Osimo, et al.2 introduced such a technique for self-counselling. Participants were embodied in scanned copies of themselves in immersive virtual reality (VR) and explained a personal problem to a virtual representation of Dr Sigmund Freud.”

    From An experimental study of a virtual reality counselling paradigm using embodied self-dialogue (2019) · cites this paper as [2]

  • In the SC group, body ownership did not differ between the Freud and own body.

    “In the SC group the level of body ownership was not different with respect to the Freud and own body, replicating what was found in2.”

    From An experimental study of a virtual reality counselling paradigm using embodied self-dialogue (2019) · cites this paper as [2]

  • In the earlier study, on average participants improved mood and happiness irrespective of condition; simply talking about the problem was sufficient for some improvement.

    “Although, being embodied as Freud with synchronous visuomotor feedback produced the best overall outcomes, on the average participants improved their mood and happiness with respect to their personal problem irrespective of the experimental condition: simply talking about their problem was sufficient to lead to some improvement.”

    From An experimental study of a virtual reality counselling paradigm using embodied self-dialogue (2019) · cites this paper as [2]

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.

  • Conditions differed in more than visuomotor synchrony

    Minor

    The claimed sole difference omits the reversed order of the preparatory embodiment phases and the fact that asynchronous participants visited only once, whereas synchronous participants came from the two-visit experiment.

1 of 1

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

Research works printed but not linked: 1

  1. Rizzo, A. et al. in Healing War Trauma A Handbook of Creative Approaches. (ed C. Figley ) Ch. 16, 238–250 (Routledge, 2013).

Cited by

Sorted by citations

Related

Authors
Osimo, S. A., Pizarro, R., Spanlang, B., & Slater, M.
Affiliations
  • Universitat de Barcelona (ES)
  • Institució Catalana de Recerca i Estudis Avançats (ES)
Corresponding author
Slater, Mel
ORCID
Venue
Scientific Reports
Publisher
Springer Science and Business Media LLC
Published
2015-09-10
Volume
5
Issue
1
Pages
13899-13899
ISSN
2045-2322 (ISSN-L)
DOI
10.1038/srep13899
PMC
PMC4564809
OpenAlex
W2462014456
Cited by
242
References
54
Citations by year
2026: 12 · 2025: 26 · 2024: 22 · 2023: 45 · 2022: 21 · 2021: 30 · 2020: 29 · 2019: 18 · 2018: 20 · 2017: 8 · 2016: 11
FWCI
24.71
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
Locations
  • Scientific Reports (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
  • BOA (University of Milano-Bicocca) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
  • UCL Discovery (University College London) (submittedVersion)
Funders
FP7 Ideas: European Research Council (227985)
Topics
  • Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Human-Computer Interaction › Virtual Reality Applications and Impacts
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Social Robot Interaction and HRI
  • Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Embodied and Extended Cognition
Keywords
virtual embodiment, Sigmund Freud, perspective taking, synchronous movement, mood improvement, embodied cognition, self-representation
MeSH terms
Counseling, Female, Freudian Theory, Humans, Male, Self Psychology

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Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

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