First person experience of body transfer in virtual reality
Open accessAbstract
BACKGROUND: Altering the normal association between touch and its visual correlate can result in the illusory perception of a fake limb as part of our own body. Thus, when touch is seen to be applied to a rubber hand while felt synchronously on the corresponding hidden real hand, an illusion of ownership of the rubber hand usually occurs. The illusion has also been demonstrated using visuomotor correlation between the movements of the hidden real hand and the seen fake hand. This type of paradigm has been used with respect to the whole body generating out-of-the-body and body substitution illusions. However, such studies have only ever manipulated a single factor and although they used a form of virtual reality have not exploited the power of immersive virtual reality (IVR) to produce radical transformations in body ownership. PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: Here we show that a first person perspective of a life-sized virtual human female body that appears to substitute the male subjects' own bodies was sufficient to generate a body transfer illusion. This was demonstrated subjectively by questionnaire and physiologically through heart-rate deceleration in response to a threat to the virtual body. This finding is in contrast to earlier experimental studies that assume visuotactile synchrony to be the critical contributory factor in ownership illusions. Our finding was possible because IVR allowed us to use a novel experimental design for this type of problem with three independent binary factors: (i) perspective position (first or third), (ii) synchronous or asynchronous mirror reflections and (iii) synchrony or asynchrony between felt and seen touch. CONCLUSIONS: The results support the notion that bottom-up perceptual mechanisms can temporarily override top down knowledge resulting in a radical illusion of transfer of body ownership. The research also illustrates immersive virtual reality as a powerful tool in the study of body representation and experience, since it supports experimental manipulations that would otherwise be infeasible, with the technology being mature enough to represent human bodies and their motion.
AI snapshot
Written from the paper’s full text.
TL;DR
In 24 male participants, immersive virtual reality with a life-sized virtual female body substituting their own produced a body-transfer illusion, especially when experienced from a first-person perspective. Subjective questionnaire responses and heart-rate deceleration to a threat to the virtual body supported the illusion, with perspective dominating over movement synchrony and visuotactile synchrony.
Key findings
- First-person perspective (1PP) was the clearest factor for body ownership: questionnaire effects for P included body (p = 0.031), touch (p = 0.023), woman (p = 0.033), cloth (p = 0.003), and hurt (p = 0.046).
- Synchronous touch (TS) affected some ownership-related questions, including woman (p = 0.024), body (p = 0.095), and touch (p = 0.085), but movement synchrony (MS vs. MS′) was least important for the illusion.
- Heart-rate deceleration (HRD) was significantly greater for 1PP than 3PP after the downward perspective shift (p = 0.028) and during the slap (p = 0.034); control periods showed no significant difference.
- HRD during the slap and after the elevated position correlated positively with feeling attacked, feeling the woman might hurt them, and body ownership; e.g., duringS correlations were attack r = 0.43 (p = 0.04), hurt r = 0.58 (p = 0.00), and down body r = 0.61 (p = 0.00).
Methods
- Balanced between-groups design with 24 male participants (mean age 27.6 ± 4.3 years), assigned across three binary factors: Perspective (1PP vs. 3PP), Movement (synchronous vs. asynchronous head movements), and Touch (synchronous vs. asynchronous visuotactile stroking).
- Participants used a wide field-of-view head-tracked HMD in an immersive virtual room; after a 2-minute baseline they were transferred to the virtual girl’s location or beside her, received shoulder stroking, were elevated to a ceiling viewpoint, and then saw the standing woman slap the seated girl.
- Measures were a 13-item post-experience questionnaire (ownership-related items scored 0–10) and ECG-based HRD, calculated as the negative slope of heart-rate change during the first 6 s after events; questionnaire data were analyzed with proportional-odds cumulative logit models and ANOVA, and HRD with ANOVA/correlations.
Limitations
- The paper states that questionnaires in this area are problematic unless backed by behavioral or physiological evidence, and notes that the virtual body was humanoid, so it is unknown whether the illusion would break down with changes in body topology.
- The paper reports no significant effect of Touch on HRD and no significant skin conductance difference between 1PP/3PP or TS/TS′ on seeing the slap, suggesting the physiological threat response was not simply arousal.
- Evident from the text: the sample was 24 male participants only, the virtual body was female and did not visually resemble participants’ real bodies, and the study used a specific immersive VR setup, limiting generalization to other populations and body transformations.
Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.
Integrity signals
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Cites
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Claims the paper makes
0 of 64 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged
- Findingown data
A first person perspective of a life-sized virtual human female body that appears to substitute the male subjects' own bodies was sufficient to generate a body transfer illusion.
“Here we show that a first person perspective of a life-sized virtual human female body that appears to substitute the male subjects' own bodies was sufficient to generate a body transfer illusion.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The 13-item questionnaire validly measures the subjective experience of body ownership and related feelings.
- Rests on an assumption: The slap of the virtual girl constitutes an aversive threat to the participant's virtual body.
- Findingown data
Amongst the three factors considered in this experiment, only Perspective had a significant influence on the heart rate deceleration response.
“Amongst the three factors considered in this experiment only Perspective had a significant influence on the HRD response.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The slap of the virtual girl constitutes an aversive threat to the participant's virtual body.
- Findingown data
Participants in condition MS were more likely to give a higher score to mirror than to body compared to those in MS′.
“However, considering our two questions that relate directly to body ownership, (body and mirror from Table 3) participants in condition MS were more likely to give a higher score to mirror than to body compared to those in MS′.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The 13-item questionnaire validly measures the subjective experience of body ownership and related feelings.
- Findingown data
The 1PP participants had a significantly greater physiological response than those who had earlier been in a spatially close but distinct virtual perspective (3PP).
“The 1PP participants, i.e. those who earlier had been in the first person perspective with respect to the girl's body, had a significantly greater physiological response than those who had earlier been in a spatially close but distinct virtual perspective (3PP).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The slap of the virtual girl constitutes an aversive threat to the participant's virtual body.
- Findingown data
There is consistency between physiological responses (HRD) and the subjective questionnaire responses.
“There is, furthermore, consistency between physiological responses (HRD) and the subjective questionnaire responses.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The 13-item questionnaire validly measures the subjective experience of body ownership and related feelings.
- Rests on an assumption: The slap of the virtual girl constitutes an aversive threat to the participant's virtual body.
- Findingown data
During the slap (duringS), 1PP participants had a significantly greater heart rate deceleration than 3PP participants.
“Similarly, we found that during the slap (duringS) the 1PP participants had a significantly greater HRD than the 3PP participants”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The slap of the virtual girl constitutes an aversive threat to the participant's virtual body.
- Findingown data
For beforeS, there was no significant difference in heart rate deceleration between the 1PP and 3PP groups.
“but for beforeS there was no significant difference”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The slap of the virtual girl constitutes an aversive threat to the participant's virtual body.
- Findingown data
There were no significant correlations between any of the questionnaire responses and heart rate deceleration for the control periods (beforeS and across).
“However, there were no significant correlations between any of the questionnaire responses and HRD for the control periods (beforeS and across).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The 13-item questionnaire validly measures the subjective experience of body ownership and related feelings.
- Rests on an assumption: The slap of the virtual girl constitutes an aversive threat to the participant's virtual body.
- Findingown data
Movement appears to have no particular effect on the questionnaire responses.
“Movement appears to have no particular effect”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The 13-item questionnaire validly measures the subjective experience of body ownership and related feelings.
- Findingown data
Stronger heart rate deceleration was positively correlated with the feeling of body ownership and the feeling of being attacked or hurt.
“Moreover, stronger heart rate deceleration was positively correlated with the feeling of body ownership and the feeling of being attacked or hurt.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The 13-item questionnaire validly measures the subjective experience of body ownership and related feelings.
- Rests on an assumption: The slap of the virtual girl constitutes an aversive threat to the participant's virtual body.
- Findingown data
When perspective position is included as a factor in the experimental design, the importance of visual-tactile synchronization diminishes in comparison to what would be expected from the literature.
“We found that when perspective position is included as a factor in the experimental design the importance of visual-tactile synchronization diminishes in comparison to what would be expected from the literature.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The 13-item questionnaire validly measures the subjective experience of body ownership and related feelings.
- Rests on an assumption: The slap of the virtual girl constitutes an aversive threat to the participant's virtual body.
- Findingown data
The correlation between mirror and body scores for those in condition MS (r = 0.91, p<3.5×10−5) is greater than for those in MS′ (r = 0.71, p<0.01).
“The correlation between these two sets of scores for those in condition MS (r = 0.91, p<3.5×10−5) is greater than for those in MS′ (r = 0.71, p<0.01).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The 13-item questionnaire validly measures the subjective experience of body ownership and related feelings.
- Findingown data
Synchronous touch has an effect on some of the questionnaire variables.
“synchronous touch has an effect on some of the variables”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The 13-item questionnaire validly measures the subjective experience of body ownership and related feelings.
- Findingown data
The most important factors leading to the temporary subjective illusion of ownership of the virtual body are the participant's perspective (1PP) and touch (TS).
“These data show that the most important factors leading to the temporary subjective illusion of ownership of the virtual body are the participant's perspective (i.e. in the girl's body, 1PP) and touch (TS), concordant with a recent account of self-consciousness [15].”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [15] O Blanke, 2009, Full-body illusions and minimal phenomenal selfhood., Trends in Cognitive Sciences source
Not checked in the free run.
- Rests on an assumption: The 13-item questionnaire validly measures the subjective experience of body ownership and related feelings.
- Findingown data
After the down transition, participants who perceived from the girl's perspective (1PP) showed a significantly greater heart rate deceleration than participants who perceived the scene from the displaced perspective (3PP).
“After the down transition (Table 2) the participants who perceived from the girl's perspective (1PP) showed a significantly greater HRD than the participants who perceived the scene from the displaced perspective (3PP).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The slap of the virtual girl constitutes an aversive threat to the participant's virtual body.
- Findingown data
For the control period (across), there was no significant difference in heart rate deceleration between the 1PP and 3PP groups.
“The same analysis was carried out for a control period (across) and revealed no significant difference between these groups of participants.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The slap of the virtual girl constitutes an aversive threat to the participant's virtual body.
- Findingown data
Perspective gives the clearest set of responses, where the mean (and median) score for 1PP is always greater than or equal to that for 3PP on each of the questions.
“Perspective gives the clearest set of responses (Figure 3A), where the mean (and median) score for 1PP is always greater than or equal that for 3PP on each of the questions.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The 13-item questionnaire validly measures the subjective experience of body ownership and related feelings.
- Findingown data
Analysis of covariance of mirror on condition M with body as a covariate suggests that the regression line of mirror on body has greater slope in condition MS than in condition MS′ (p = 0.06).
“Analysis of covariance of mirror on condition M with body as a covariate suggests that the regression line of mirror on body has greater slope in condition MS than in condition MS′ (p = 0.06).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The 13-item questionnaire validly measures the subjective experience of body ownership and related feelings.
- Findingown data
When all three factors are considered together, perspective, specifically first-person perspective, clearly dominates as an explanatory factor for subjective and physiological measures of ownership.
“Our results suggest that when all three factors are considered together that perspective, specifically first-person perspective, clearly dominates as an explanatory factor for subjective and physiological measures of ownership.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The 13-item questionnaire validly measures the subjective experience of body ownership and related feelings.
- Rests on an assumption: The slap of the virtual girl constitutes an aversive threat to the participant's virtual body.
- Findingown data
Apparent head-movement synchrony was least important for the body ownership illusion.
“Our data also show that apparent head-movement synchrony was least important for the body ownership illusion.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The 13-item questionnaire validly measures the subjective experience of body ownership and related feelings.
- Findingown data
There are no significant effects for T in the case of the heart rate deceleration.
“There are no significant effects for T in the case of the HRD.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The slap of the virtual girl constitutes an aversive threat to the participant's virtual body.
- Findingown data
Heart rate deceleration is not affected by T.
“However, HRD is not affected by T.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The slap of the virtual girl constitutes an aversive threat to the participant's virtual body.
- Findingown data
The same analysis has stronger support for there being two positively sloped parallel lines with the one for MS having a greater intercept than for MS′ (p = 0.0093).
“The same analysis has stronger support for there being two positively sloped parallel lines with the one for MS having a greater intercept than for MS′ (p = 0.0093).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The 13-item questionnaire validly measures the subjective experience of body ownership and related feelings.
- Findingown data
For the questions touch and woman, there are greater probability estimates for the Medium to High questionnaire response in the synchronous compared to the asynchronous condition.
“Figure S2 gives the equivalent graph for the questions touch and woman, which have greater probability estimates for the Medium to High questionnaire response in the synchronous compared to the asynchronous condition.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The 13-item questionnaire validly measures the subjective experience of body ownership and related feelings.
- Findingown data
With respect to the questionnaire responses, the estimated probability of the response being in the Very Low category was much greater in the asynchronous touch than in the synchronous touch condition.
“Figure 3D shows that with respect to the questionnaire responses the estimated probability of the response being in the Very Low category was much greater in the asynchronous touch than in the synchronous touch condition.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The 13-item questionnaire validly measures the subjective experience of body ownership and related feelings.
- Findingown data
In this study, there was significantly greater aversion (as quantified by HRD) for participants in the 1PP condition.
“However, there was significantly greater aversion (as quantified by HRD) for those in the 1PP condition, we speculate because they had a greater degree of association with the body that was seen to be slapped.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
The responses to the question body support the idea that synchronous stroking enhances ownership of the 1PP perceived virtual body.
“Figure 3D shows that the responses to the question body supports the idea that synchronous stroking enhances ownership of the 1PP perceived virtual body.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The 13-item questionnaire validly measures the subjective experience of body ownership and related feelings.
- Premisecitation
These out-of-the-body and the manikin experiments employed synchronous visuotactile stimulation.
“These out-of-the-body and the manikin experiments employed synchronous visuotactile stimulation – the illusory visual body was seen to be tapped or stroked in the same place as the real body was felt to be stimulated.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked- cites [7] B Lenggenhager, 2007, Video ergo sum: Manipulating bodily self-consciousness., Science source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [8] B Lenggenhager, 2009, Spatial aspects of bodily self-consciousness., Consciousness and Cognition source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [9] HH Ehrsson, 2007, The experimental induction of out-of-body experiences., Science source
Not checked in the free run.
- Interpretationown data
The results support the notion that bottom-up perceptual mechanisms can temporarily override top down knowledge resulting in a radical illusion of transfer of body ownership.
“The results support the notion that bottom-up perceptual mechanisms can temporarily override top down knowledge resulting in a radical illusion of transfer of body ownership.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The 13-item questionnaire validly measures the subjective experience of body ownership and related feelings.
- Rests on an assumption: The slap of the virtual girl constitutes an aversive threat to the participant's virtual body.
- Premisereasoning
The examples of out-of-the-body experiences provide indirect evidence that these illusions might apply to the whole body rather than only to body parts.
“The examples of out-of-the-body experiences provide indirect evidence that these illusions might apply to the whole body rather than only to body parts.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Premisecitation
When normal correlation between two sensory streams is changed, the brain engages in a re-evaluation of probabilities and assigns ownership to the visible rubber limb.
“When normal correlation between two sensory streams is changed, for example, by seeing a plausibly located rubber hand touched while simultaneously feeling the touch on our out-of-sight real hand, the brain apparently engages in a re-evaluation of probabilities and assigns ownership to the visible rubber limb [1], [2].”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites [1] M Botvinick, 1998, Rubber hands ‘feel’ touch that eyes see., Nature source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [2] KC Armel, 2003, Projecting sensations to external objects: evidence from skin conductance response., Proceedings of the Royal Society of London Series B-Biological Sciences source
Not checked in the free run.
- Study design and conductreasoning
The study used a novel experimental design with three independent binary factors: perspective position (first or third), synchronous or asynchronous mirror reflections, and synchrony or asynchrony between felt and seen touch.
“Our finding was possible because IVR allowed us to use a novel experimental design for this type of problem with three independent binary factors: (i) perspective position (first or third), (ii) synchronous or asynchronous mirror reflections and (iii) synchrony or asynchrony between felt and seen touch.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationown data
The minimal contribution of the specific type of agency investigated (MS′ compared to MS) seems to be in conflict with previous studies that suggested the importance of motor cues for the sense of self.
“The minimal contribution of the specific type of agency that we investigated (MS′ compared to MS) seems to be in conflict with previous studies that suggested the importance of motor cues for the sense of self [19], [20].”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked - Premisenone given
Previous studies only manipulated a single one of the three factors (Perspective, Movement, Touch).
“Importantly, these previous studies only manipulated a single one of the three factors (Perspective, Movement, Touch).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationnone given
In this study's setup, real-time head-tracking ensured that the act of looking down involved motor acts and corresponding perceptual changes comparable to physical reality.
“In our setup the real-time head-tracking ensured that the act of looking down involved motor acts and corresponding perceptual changes comparable to physical reality.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
When the virtual body is perceived to be in the same place as where the real body should be, this may provide very strong evidence for the brain to generate the illusion that the virtual body is one's own.
“When the virtual body is perceived to be in the same place as where the real body should be, perhaps this provides very strong evidence for the brain to generate the illusion that the virtual body is one's own.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation
According to [22], the rubber hand illusion can be generated in about 80% of people with less than 15s of stimulation, provided that the rubber hand and real hand are close to one another (15-18cm).
“Yet according to [22] the RHI can be generated in about 80% of people with less than 15s of stimulation, provided that the rubber hand and real hand are close to one another (15–18cm).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [22] D Lloyd, 2007, Spatial limits on referred touch to an alien limb may reflect boundaries of visuo-tactile peripersonal space surrounding the hand., Brain and Cognition source
Not checked in the free run.
- Premisereasoning
The HRD measure used in this study does not measure the same type of response as skin conductance.
“However, the HRD measure that we use does not measure the same type of response as skin conductance.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation
In Petkova and Ehrsson [14], skin conductance response differed significantly when the manikin body was threatened in the synchronous compared to the asynchronous touch condition.
“In [14] there was a significantly different skin conductance response when the manikin body was threatened in the synchronous compared to the asynchronous touch condition.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [14] VI Petkova, 2008, If I Were You: Perceptual Illusion of Body Swapping., PLoS ONE source
Not checked in the free run.
- Premisecitation
The essence of Lenggenhager et al.'s setup was to manipulate ownership by a 3PP self-representation, that was touched asynchronously or synchronously, comparable to our 3PP and TS′ compared with 3PP and TS.
“The essence of their setup was to manipulate ownership by a 3PP self-representation, that was touched asynchronously or synchronously, comparable to our 3PP and TS′ compared with 3PP and TS.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [7] B Lenggenhager, 2007, Video ergo sum: Manipulating bodily self-consciousness., Science source
Not checked in the free run.
- Premisecitation
Gender categorization is known to be persistent.
“Gender categorization is known to be persistent.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [28] R Kurzban, 2001, Can race be erased? Coalitional computation and social categorization., PNAS source
Not checked in the free run.
- Premisecitation
A recent observation [24] is that the strong illusion of being in the place depicted by virtual reality occurs when sensorimotor contingencies for perception [25], [26] are similar to those of physical reality, that is, when a participant can use their body for perception in much the same way as normally [27].
“This also ties in with a recent observation that the strong illusion of being in the place depicted by the virtual reality [24] occurs when sensorimotor contingencies for perception [25], [26] are similar to those of physical reality, that is, when a participant can use their body for perception in much the same way as normally [27].”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked- cites [24] MV Sanchez-Vives, 2005, From Presence to Consciousness through Virtual Reality., Nature Reviews Neuroscience source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [25] A Noë, 2004, Action In Perception
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [26] JK O'Regan, 2001, A sensorimotor account of vision and visual consciousness., Behav Brain Sci source
Not checked in the free run.
- Premisecitation
In [28], an experiment showed that racial categorizations can be eliminated in favor of categorization by membership of a cross-racial coalition.
“For example, in [28] an experiment is reported that shows that racial categorizations can be eliminated in favor of categorization by membership of a cross-racial coalition.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [28] R Kurzban, 2001, Can race be erased? Coalitional computation and social categorization., PNAS source
Not checked in the free run.
- Interpretationreasoning
Our experiment also includes that of Petkova and Ehrsson [14] as a special case.
“Our experiment also includes that of Petkova and Ehrsson [14] as a special case.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [14] VI Petkova, 2008, If I Were You: Perceptual Illusion of Body Swapping., PLoS ONE source
Not checked in the free run.
- Interpretationreasoning
The difference in head-tracking may explain why synchronized touch was critical for ownership changes in Petkova and Ehrsson's setup but less important in this experiment.
“This may be why in Petkova's and Ehrsson's setup synchronized touch was a critical factor to achieve changes in ownership but it was less important in our experiment.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisenone given
This experiment used mainly bottom-up sensory stimuli - visual, tactile, vestibular and proprioceptive signals and their correlations.
“In contrast our experiment used mainly bottom-up sensory stimuli – visual, tactile, vestibular and proprioceptive signals and their correlations.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation
When the same technique was applied to gender categorization, the effect of gender could not be extinguished.
“When the same technique was applied to gender categorization the effect of gender could not be extinguished.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [28] R Kurzban, 2001, Can race be erased? Coalitional computation and social categorization., PNAS source
Not checked in the free run.
- Premisecitation
Continuous stroking may not be necessary to induce the illusion; the rubber hand illusion can be 'topped up' by occasional sequences of stroking with periods of no stroking in between.
“Finally, we note that continuous stroking may not be necessary to induce the illusion. For example [23] showed that the RHI could be ‘topped up’ by occasional sequences of stroking with periods of no stroking in between.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [23] S Schutz-Bosbach, 2006, Self and other in the human motor system., Current Biology source
Not checked in the free run.
- Interpretationreasoning
Our experiment includes that of Lenggenhager et al. [7] as a special case.
“Our experiment includes that of Lenggenhager et al. [7] as a special case.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [7] B Lenggenhager, 2007, Video ergo sum: Manipulating bodily self-consciousness., Science source
Not checked in the free run.
- Premisecitation
There is a critical difference between this experiment and that of Petkova and Ehrsson [14]: in [14] cameras on the manikin's head were fixed, looking down at the manikin's body, so subjects had to have their head fixed in the same orientation.
“Additionally there is a critical difference between our experiment and that of Petkova and Ehrsson [14] where cameras on the manikin's head were in a fixed position, looking down at the manikin's body, and therefore the experimental subjects had to have their head fixed in the same orientation.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [14] VI Petkova, 2008, If I Were You: Perceptual Illusion of Body Swapping., PLoS ONE source
Not checked in the free run.
- Interpretationreasoning
With respect to body ownership, bottom-up perceptual signals play a more dominant role than top-down processing.
“This would lead us to think that with respect to the issue of body ownership, bottom-up perceptual signals play a more dominant role than top-down processing.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation
Petkova and Ehrsson's main setup was to manipulate ownership by a 1PP self-representation (a manikin) that was touched either asynchronously or synchronously - similar to our 1PP and TS′ and 1PP and TS.
“Their main setup was to also manipulate ownership by a 1PP self-representation (a manikin) that was touched either asynchronously or synchronously – similar to our 1PP and TS′ (girl's perspective and asynchronous stroking) and 1PP and TS (girl's perspective but synchronous stroking), respectively.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [14] VI Petkova, 2008, If I Were You: Perceptual Illusion of Body Swapping., PLoS ONE source
Not checked in the free run.
- Premisecitation
The same limits were found with respect to the body in [7].
“The same was found with respect to the body in [7].”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [7] B Lenggenhager, 2007, Video ergo sum: Manipulating bodily self-consciousness., Science source
Not checked in the free run.
- Premisecitation
Previous work on ownership has shown that threat-like behavior is often associated with physiological changes.
“We rendered our animation in this way because previous work on ownership has shown that threat-like behavior is often associated with physiological changes [2], [9], [14], [35].”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked- cites [2] KC Armel, 2003, Projecting sensations to external objects: evidence from skin conductance response., Proceedings of the Royal Society of London Series B-Biological Sciences source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [9] HH Ehrsson, 2007, The experimental induction of out-of-body experiences., Science source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [14] VI Petkova, 2008, If I Were You: Perceptual Illusion of Body Swapping., PLoS ONE source
Not checked in the free run.
- Interpretationown data
The results of this experiment lend weight to the view that bottom-up sensory integration (or visual capture) can alter the sense of one's body by giving powerful illusions of temporary transformation in the form (female) and size (somewhat smaller) of the body.
“The results of our experiment lend weight to the view that bottom up sensory integration (or visual capture) can alter the sense of one's body by giving these powerful illusions of temporary transformation in the form (female) and size (somewhat smaller) of the body.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Study design and conductown data
In most of the analyses, residual errors followed a normal distribution as judged by a Jarque-Bera test [37].
“In most of the analyses we carried out this was the case, as judged by a Jarque-Bera test [37].”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [37] CM Jarque, 1980, Efficient tests for normality, homoscedasticity and serial independence of regression residuals., Economics Letters source
Not checked in the free run.
- May combine two claims. 23
- Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 28
May combine two claims.
Findingown dataThe body transfer illusion was demonstrated subjectively by questionnaire and physiologically through heart-rate deceleration in response to a threat to the virtual body.
“This was demonstrated subjectively by questionnaire and physiologically through heart-rate deceleration in response to a threat to the virtual body.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The 13-item questionnaire validly measures the subjective experience of body ownership and related feelings.
- Rests on an assumption: The slap of the virtual girl constitutes an aversive threat to the participant's virtual body.
May combine two claims.
Findingown dataDuring the slap (duringS) and after the period of being in the elevated position (down), heart rate deceleration was significantly positively correlated with a feeling of the participant's own body being attacked (attack), the feeling that they might be hurt by the woman (hurt), and body ownership (body).
“During the slap (duringS) and after the period of being in the elevated position (down) the HRD was significantly positively correlated with a feeling of the participant's own body being attacked (attack), the feeling that they might be hurt by the woman (hurt) and body ownership (body).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The 13-item questionnaire validly measures the subjective experience of body ownership and related feelings.
- Rests on an assumption: The slap of the virtual girl constitutes an aversive threat to the participant's virtual body.
May combine two claims.
Findingown dataIn proportional-odds cumulative logit models, perspective (P) had significant effects on body (p = 0.031), touch (p = 0.023), woman (p = 0.033), cloth (p = 0.003), and hurt (p = 0.046).
“Using proportional-odds cumulative logit models the notable significance levels are for P (body, p = 0.031; touch, 0.023; woman, 0.033; cloth, 0.003; hurt, 0.046)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The 13-item questionnaire validly measures the subjective experience of body ownership and related feelings.
May combine two claims.
Findingown dataIn proportional-odds cumulative logit models, touch (T) had significant effects on body (p = 0.095), touch (p = 0.085), and woman (p = 0.024).
“and T (body, p = 0.095; touch, 0.085; woman, 0.024)”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The 13-item questionnaire validly measures the subjective experience of body ownership and related feelings.
May combine two claims.
Findingown dataThere are only 2 out of 12 cases for those in condition MS where mirror < body, and only 1 out of 12 cases for those in condition MS′ where mirror > body.
“There are only 2 out of 12 cases for those in condition MS where mirror < body, and only 1 out of 12 cases for those in condition MS′ where mirror > body.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The 13-item questionnaire validly measures the subjective experience of body ownership and related feelings.
May combine two claims.
Findingown dataIn this study, there was no significant difference in skin conductance on seeing the slap between the 1PP and 3PP conditions or between the TS and TS′ conditions.
“In fact in our study there was no significant difference with respect to skin conductance on seeing the slap between the 1PP and 3PP conditions or TS and TS′ conditions - it is simply an arousing event to see someone slapped.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimClassified as probably not a substantial claim.
Findingown dataThe same is true for the other questionnaire responses (Figure S2).
“The same is true for the other questionnaire responses (Figure S2).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The 13-item questionnaire validly measures the subjective experience of body ownership and related feelings.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Findingnone givenThe results from the ANOVA were not different from the previous analysis.
“Nevertheless this approach is common, and it is presented for the sake of completeness, but the results are not different from the previous analysis.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimClassified as probably not a substantial claim.
PremisecitationOwnership can be attributed to a manikin that appears visually to substitute the person's real body as seen through head-mounted displays coupled to a video camera oriented down at the manikin body.
“There is also evidence that ownership can be attributed to a manikin that appears visually to substitute the person's real body as seen through head-mounted displays coupled to a video camera oriented down at the manikin body [14].”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [14] VI Petkova, 2008, If I Were You: Perceptual Illusion of Body Swapping., PLoS ONE source
Not checked in the free run.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
PremisecitationThese methods have been used to produce out-of-the-body experiences.
“These methods have also been used to produce illusions of body morphing, adding supernumery limbs to the body [3], [4], [5], [6], and out-of-the-body experiences [7], [8], [9].”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked- cites [7] B Lenggenhager, 2007, Video ergo sum: Manipulating bodily self-consciousness., Science source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [8] B Lenggenhager, 2009, Spatial aspects of bodily self-consciousness., Consciousness and Cognition source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [9] HH Ehrsson, 2007, The experimental induction of out-of-body experiences., Science source
Not checked in the free run.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
PremisecitationThe same methods work with entirely virtual objects.
“While the vast majority of work in this field has shown that it is possible to incorporate physical objects or video images of these into the body representation, it has also recently been shown that the same methods work with entirely virtual objects [11], [12], [13].”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked- cites [11] M Slater, 2008, Towards a digital body: The virtual arm illusion., Front Hum Neurosci
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [12] D Perez-Marcos, 2009, Inducing a virtual hand ownership illusion through a brain-computer interface., Neuroreport source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [13] M Slater, 2009, Inducing Illusory Ownership of a Virtual Body., Frontiers in Neuroscience source
Not checked in the free run.
May combine two claims.
Interpretationown dataThe finding that first person perspective was sufficient to generate body transfer illusion is in contrast to earlier experimental studies that assume visuotactile synchrony to be the critical contributory factor in ownership illusions.
“This finding is in contrast to earlier experimental studies that assume visuotactile synchrony to be the critical contributory factor in ownership illusions.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
PremisecitationThese methods have been used to produce illusions of body morphing and adding supernumerary limbs to the body.
“These methods have also been used to produce illusions of body morphing, adding supernumery limbs to the body [3], [4], [5], [6]”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked- cites [3] M Schaefer, 2007, Morphing the body: Illusory feeling of an elongated arm affects somatosensory homunculus., Neuroimage source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [4] M Schaefer, 2009, My third arm: Shifts in topography of the somatosensory homunculus predict feeling of an artificial supernumerary arm., Human Brain Mapping source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [5] H Ehrsson, 2009, How many arms make a pair? Perceptual illusion of having an additional limb., Perception source
Not checked in the free run.
May combine two claims.
Interpretationown dataThe physiological result is particularly powerful because participants were responding to witnessing the girl being slapped while they were in an elevated position even without any synchronous touch.
“The latter provides a particularly powerful result, since participants were responding to witnessing the girl being slapped while they were in an elevated position even without any synchronous touch.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The slap of the virtual girl constitutes an aversive threat to the participant's virtual body.
Classified as probably not a substantial claim.
PremisecitationPrevious studies suggested that synchronous touch (TS) and 1PP are crucial factors for the sense of ownership.
“These suggested that synchronous touch (TS) and 1PP [17], [18] to be crucial factors for the sense of ownership.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites [17] K Vogeley, 2003, Neural correlates of the first-person-perspective., Trends in Cognitive Sciences source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [18] K Vogeley, 2004, Neural correlates of first-person perspective as one constituent of human self-consciousness., Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience source
Not checked in the free run.
May combine two claims.
PremisecitationPrevious studies have focused almost entirely on agency manipulations with respect to the upper extremity and have been carried out in isolation from perspective and touch manipulations.
“We note that previous studies have focussed almost entirely on agency manipulations with respect to the upper extremity and have been carried out in isolation from perspective and touch manipulations (see [21] for an exception), making problematic any direct comparison with our results.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [21] M Tsakiris, 2005, A specific role for efferent information in self-recognition., Cognition source
Not checked in the free run.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Study design and conductown dataThe proportional-odds cumulative logit model fits were good, with the highest deviance being 29.8 on 25 d.f.
“The model fits were good, with the highest deviance being 29.8 on 25 d.f.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The 13-item questionnaire validly measures the subjective experience of body ownership and related feelings.
Classified as probably not a substantial claim.
PremisecitationWhen there is asynchrony between felt and seen touches changes in ownership do not occur or are less prominent compared to the case of synchrony between both stimuli.
“When there is asynchrony between felt and seen touches changes in ownership do not occur or are less prominent compared to the case of synchrony between both stimuli [13].”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [13] M Slater, 2009, Inducing Illusory Ownership of a Virtual Body., Frontiers in Neuroscience source
Not checked in the free run.
May combine two claims.
Interpretationown dataThe experiment reported here is the first that shows that ownership can be transferred to an entirely virtual body, using an experimental design that separates perspective position from visuotactile stimulation.
“The experiment reported here is the first that shows that ownership can be transferred to an entirely virtual body, using an experimental design that separates perspective position from visuotactile stimulation.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The 13-item questionnaire validly measures the subjective experience of body ownership and related feelings.
- Rests on an assumption: The slap of the virtual girl constitutes an aversive threat to the participant's virtual body.
Classified as probably not a substantial claim.
InterpretationcitationOur study extends earlier results that used simpler video and virtual reality technology.
“Our study extends earlier results that used simpler video and virtual reality technology [7], [8], [9], [14].”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked- cites [7] B Lenggenhager, 2007, Video ergo sum: Manipulating bodily self-consciousness., Science source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [8] B Lenggenhager, 2009, Spatial aspects of bodily self-consciousness., Consciousness and Cognition source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [9] HH Ehrsson, 2007, The experimental induction of out-of-body experiences., Science source
Not checked in the free run.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
PremisecitationArmel and Ramachandran [2] postulated that bottom-up sensory integration between vision and touch was sufficient to generate the illusion, since it operated even with a neutral object such as a table.
“while Armel and Ramachandran [2] went further to postulate that such bottom-up sensory integration between vision and touch was sufficient to generate the illusion since it was shown to operate even with a neutral object such as a table.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [2] KC Armel, 2003, Projecting sensations to external objects: evidence from skin conductance response., Proceedings of the Royal Society of London Series B-Biological Sciences source
Not checked in the free run.
May combine two claims.
PremisereasoningSensorimotor contingencies endow 'place-ness' to virtual space and the objects within it, and one's own body is a unique and highly special object.
“Sensorimotor contingencies endow ‘place-ness’ to virtual space and the objects within it, and a unique and highly special object is one's own body.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimClassified as probably not a substantial claim.
PremisecitationHRD has been proposed to measure the degree of aversion to images.
“HRD in particular has been proposed to measure the degree of aversion to images [16].”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [16] J Cacioppo, 2007, Handbook of Psychophysiology source
Not checked in the free run.
May combine two claims.
PremisecitationThat experiment [28] illustrated that top-down cognitive manipulations could reduce the effect of race, but not of gender.
“That experiment therefore provided an illustration that top-down cognitive manipulations could reduce the effect of race, but not of gender.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [28] R Kurzban, 2001, Can race be erased? Coalitional computation and social categorization., PNAS source
Not checked in the free run.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
PremisecitationBotvinick and Cohen [1] proposed that visuo-tactile integration was sufficient to generate the feeling that proprioception had shifted to the rubber arm.
“Botvinick and Cohen [1] proposed that visuo-tactile integration was sufficient to generate the feeling that proprioception had shifted to the rubber arm”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [1] M Botvinick, 1998, Rubber hands ‘feel’ touch that eyes see., Nature source
Not checked in the free run.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
InterpretationreasoningThe finding that synchronized touch was less important in this experiment was unexpected in comparison with previous results emphasizing visuotactile synchronization.
“This finding was unexpected in comparison with previous results that have emphasized the importance of visuotactile synchronization.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
Interpretationown dataThe synchronised head movement did, after all, make some difference - resulting in those participants in condition MS giving higher scores to the question mirror than to the question body.
“This suggests that the synchronised head movement did, after all, make some difference – resulting in those participants in condition MS giving higher scores to the question mirror than to the question body.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The 13-item questionnaire validly measures the subjective experience of body ownership and related feelings.
Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.
PremisecitationAs reported by many of these patients, the elevated location is not represented as embodied in a person's body and patients report not perceiving or having reduced perception of somatosensory cues from their body.
“As reported by many of these patients this elevated location is not represented as embodied in a person's body and patients report not perceiving or having reduced perception of somatosensory cues from their body.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checkedProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
PremisecitationThe spatial coordinates of the viewpoint transformation were chosen based on such transformations in neurological patients with out-of-body experiences [33], [34].
“The spatial coordinates of this viewpoint transformation were chosen based such transformations in neurological patients with out-of-body experiences [33], [34].”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checkedMay combine two claims.
InterpretationreasoningKnowing that it is an illusion does not extinguish the feeling that the seen rubber or virtual hand or body appears to be the loci of proprioception and tactile sensation; this feeling appears to be an automatic response of the brain in dealing with conflicting sensory information.
“Knowing that it is an illusion, however, does not extinguish this feeling, which appears to be an automatic response of the brain in dealing with the conflicting sensory information.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
Premisecitation[30] refers to self recognition, which may not be the same as body ownership.
“However, [30] refers to self recognition, which may not be the same as body ownership.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [30] G Carruthers, 2008, Types of body representation and the sense of embodiment., Consciousness and Cognition source
Not checked in the free run.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
PremisecitationTsakiris and Haggard [29] concluded that bottom-up influences provided a necessary but not sufficient condition for the illusion to occur.
“This led them to conclude that bottom up influences provided a necessary but not sufficient condition for the illusion to occur.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [29] M Tsakiris, 2005, The rubber hand illusion revisited: Visuotactile integration and self-attribution., Journal of Experimental Psychology-Human Perception and Performance source
Not checked in the free run.
May combine two claims.
PremisecitationWork in [29] showed that a non-humanoid appearance of the arm and left-right reversal does not produce the illusion, suggesting that there are limits imposed by top-down processing on the type of body and its configuration.
“The work described in [29], where it was shown that a non-humanoid appearance of the arm [29] and left-right reversal does not produce the illusion, suggests that there are clearly limits imposed by top down processing on the type of body and its configuration.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [29] M Tsakiris, 2005, The rubber hand illusion revisited: Visuotactile integration and self-attribution., Journal of Experimental Psychology-Human Perception and Performance source
Not checked in the free run.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
PremisecitationThe discussion about relative influence of bottom-up and top-down factors has continued with the introduction of ideas of offline and online representations [30], where offline refers to what our body is normally like and online refers to the temporal flow of information that constructs how our body is right now [31], [32].
“The discussion about the relative influence of bottom-up and top-down factors has continued with the introduction of the ideas of offline and online representations [30] where the former refers to what our body is normally like, and the latter refers to the temporal flow of information that constructs how our body is right now [31], [32].”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked- cites [30] G Carruthers, 2008, Types of body representation and the sense of embodiment., Consciousness and Cognition source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [31] M Tsakiris, 2008, Is my body the sum of online and offline body-representations?, Consciousness and Cognition source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [32] G Carruthers, 2008, Reply to Tsakiris and Fotopoulou ìIs my body the sum of online and offline body representations?íí., Consciousness and Cognition source
Not checked in the free run.
May combine two claims.
Interpretationown dataThrough an IVR a person can see through the eyes and hear through the ears of a virtual body that can be seen to substitute for their own body, and our data show that people have some subjective and physiological responses as if it were their own body.
“Through an IVR a person can see through the eyes and hear through the ears of a virtual body that can be seen to substitute for their own body, and our data show that people have some subjective and physiological responses as if it were their own body.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimClassified as probably not a substantial claim.
Study design and conductnone givenA balanced between-groups design was used with the three binary factors being Perspective, Movement and Touch.
“A balanced between-groups design was used with the three binary factors being Perspective, Movement and Touch as discussed above (Table 1).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Study design and conductnone givenRecruitment continued until error-free physiological data were obtained for the target 24 participants.
“Recruitment continued until we had error free physiological data for the target 24 participants.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
Study design and conductnone givenThe experiment was approved by the Comité Ético de Investigación del IDIBAPS (Hospital Clínic, University of Barcelona) and written informed consent was obtained from all participants.
“The experiment was approved by the Comité Ético de Investigación del IDIBAPS (Hospital Clínic, University of Barcelona) and written informed consent was obtained from all participants.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
PremisecitationTsakiris and Haggard [29] found that the illusion did not occur when a wooden stick was used in place of a rubber arm, nor when there was postural incongruence (left hand stimulated with the rubber hand being a right hand).
“However, this result was not reproduced by Tsakiris and Haggard [29] who found that the illusion did not occur when a wooden stick was used in place of a rubber arm, nor did it occur when there was postural incongruence (the left hand stimulated with the rubber hand being a right hand).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [29] M Tsakiris, 2005, The rubber hand illusion revisited: Visuotactile integration and self-attribution., Journal of Experimental Psychology-Human Perception and Performance source
Not checked in the free run.
Classified as probably not a substantial claim.
Study design and conductown dataIn order to use the proportional odds model, scores needed to be grouped together because responses were too sparsely distributed over the original range 0 to 10.
“In order to use this we needed to group scores together, since the responses are too sparsely distributed over the original range of scores from 0 to 10.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).
PremisecitationQuestionnaires in this area are problematic unless backed up by behavioral or physiological evidence.
“We note that questionnaires in this area are problematic unless backed up by behavioral or physiological evidence, see the discussion of this point with respect to the virtual arm illusion in [11].”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [11] M Slater, 2008, Towards a digital body: The virtual arm illusion., Front Hum Neurosci
Not checked in the free run.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
Study design and conductnone givenSome of the questionnaire questions were derived from previous work [1], [7], [9] and others were introduced following interviews with participants in extensive pilot trials.
“Some of the questions were derived from previous work [1], [7], [9] and others were introduced following interviews with participants in extensive pilot trials.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked- cites [1] M Botvinick, 1998, Rubber hands ‘feel’ touch that eyes see., Nature source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [7] B Lenggenhager, 2007, Video ergo sum: Manipulating bodily self-consciousness., Science source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [9] HH Ehrsson, 2007, The experimental induction of out-of-body experiences., Science source
Not checked in the free run.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Study design and conductreasoningAnalysis of variance is strictly not an appropriate form of analysis for these questionnaire responses because it assumes responses are at least on an interval scale, which is not the case.
“This is strictly not an appropriate form of analysis since it assumes that the responses are at least on an interval scale, and clearly this is not the case.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Study design and conductown dataThe residual errors of all models were compatible with normality, based on Jarque-Bera tests.
“The residual errors of all models were compatible with normality, based on Jarque-Bera tests.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Study design and conductcitationFor the questionnaire responses, the proportional odds cumulative logit model was chosen because it appropriately treats the responses as ordinal data.
“For the questionnaire responses we have chosen the proportional odds cumulative logit model [36] since this appropriately treats the responses as ordinal data.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [36] P McCullagh, 1989, Generalized linear models
Not checked in the free run.
The paper relies on this without support.
The 13-item questionnaire validly measures the subjective experience of body ownership and related feelings.
“Immediately after the experience in the virtual reality, a 13-item questionnaire was answered by the participants (Questionnaire S1). Eight of these questions related to the issue of body ownership (Table 3).”
The paper relies on this without support.
The slap of the virtual girl constitutes an aversive threat to the participant's virtual body.
“Suddenly the standing woman was seen to hit the seated girl around the face (Figure 2H).”
The paper relies on this without support.
Skin conductance measures arousal, the valence of which is unknown.
“The latter measures arousal, the valence of which is unknown.”
The paper relies on this without support.
If the body ownership illusion can be generated when the virtual body does not resemble the real body and is not the same gender, then it should also be possible in less extreme situations.
“The reasoning was that if it were the case that the illusion could be generated in these circumstances then it should also be possible in a range of other less extreme situations - without gender change, with less of a radical difference between the participant's own body and the virtual body.”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
Electrodermal response permits assessment of the level of arousal.
“The electrodermal response permits to assess the level of arousal: previous studies demonstrated its utility as an objective measure of anxiety under threatening situations or of body illusions29–31.”
From The impact of multisensory integration and perceptual load in virtual reality settings on performance, workload and presence (2021) · cites this paper as [31]
Once trained with calibration data, the asSWLDA algorithm can compute a workload index on other data by combining selected EEG features with model weights.
“Once trained with specific “calibration data”, the algorithm can be used to compute a workload index (i.e., WEEG index) on other data by combining the selected EEG features with specific weights in output from the model itself.”
From The impact of multisensory integration and perceptual load in virtual reality settings on performance, workload and presence (2021) · cites this paper as [31]
The Materials and Methods introduction describes ECG recording, while Statistical Methods describes analyses of questionnaire responses. Searches for asSWLDA, calibration data, EEG features, and workload-index computation found no passage in our copy addressing the claimed algorithm. (LLM, conf=0.76)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe asSWLDA algorithm has been validated and successfully employed for EEG-based workload assessment in operational environments such as air traffic management and car driving.
“This algorithm has been already validated and successfully employed for EEG-based workload assessment in operational environments, such as air traffic management31 and car driving32.”
From The impact of multisensory integration and perceptual load in virtual reality settings on performance, workload and presence (2021) · cites this paper as [31]
The Materials and Methods section describes ECG recording during a virtual-reality body-transfer experiment, and the Results report heart-rate deceleration. Searches for asSWLDA, EEG workload assessment, air traffic management, and car driving found no passage addressing the attributed claim; the copy gives no page numbers. (LLM, conf=0.78)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredBodily illusions can induce ownership over a body different from one's own with respect to gender, age, or race.
“In a number of experimental studies, participants have been exposed to bodily illusions that induced ownership over a body different to their own with respect to gender, age or race.”
From Changing bodies changes minds: Owning another body affects social cognition (2015) · cites this paper as [25]
Illusions of body ownership are surprisingly impervious to social and perceptual distinctions.
“Importantly, illusions of body ownership were revealed to be surprisingly impervious to social and perceptual distinctions.”
From Changing bodies changes minds: Owning another body affects social cognition (2015) · cites this paper as [25]
Specific types of synchronous multisensory and sensorimotor stimulation can lead to illusory perceptions of body shape, size, and symmetry even when these are very different from the normal body form.
“It has been shown that specific types of synchronous multisensory and sensorimotor stimulation can lead to illusory perceptions of body shape, size, and symmetry even when these are very different from the normal body form (17)(18)(19)(20)(21)(22)(23).”
From Illusory ownership of a virtual child body causes overestimation of object sizes and implicit attitude changes (2013) · cites this paper as [19]
First person perspective dominates visual-tactile synchrony in its contribution towards body ownership illusions.
“Such an account is in line with the findings in [30], [31] that first person perspective dominates visual-tactile synchrony in its contribution towards body ownership illusions.”
From Extending body space in immersive virtual reality: a very long arm illusion (2012) · cites this paper as [30]
A previous study measuring HRD in response to a person being threatened observed from first- and third-person-perspective did not find a significant difference in HRD to the threat after synchronous vs asynchronous touch, but only found differences between first- and third-person-perspective.
“It should be noted that a previous study which measured HRD in response to a person being threatened, observed from first- and third-person-perspective, did not find a significant difference in HRD to the threat occurring after synchronous as compared to the asynchronous touch condition, but they only found differences in HRD between the conditions when the person threatened was observed from first”
From The other in me: interpersonal multisensory stimulation changes the mental representation of the self (2012) · cites this paper as [51]
First person perspective has been found to be an important factor in the illusion of body ownership.
“Such first person perspective has been found to be an important factor in the illusion of body ownership13565758.”
From Conversations between self and self as Sigmund Freud—A virtual body ownership paradigm for self counselling (2015) · cites this paper as [13]
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.
Body ownership correlation during the slap is described as significant
MinorThe text says body ownership was significantly correlated with heart-rate deceleration during the slap, but Table 4 reports p = 0.06 for that correlation.
“During the slap (duringS) and after the period of being in the elevated position (down) the HRD was significantly positively correlated with a feeling of the participant's own body being attacked (attack), the feeling that they might be hurt by the woman (hurt) and body ownership (body).”
“| duringS | 0.43(0.038) | 0.43(0.04) | 0.58(0.00) | 0.39(0.06) | 0.25 | 0.04 | 0.10 | 0.55(0.00) |”
Third-person viewpoint is placed on opposite sides of the girl
MinorThe figure caption places the participant to the right of the girl in the third-person condition, while the Methods section places the participant 1 m to her left.
“In the 3PP condition they would be located to the right of the girl”
“in the 3PP condition (third person) the participant's position was 1m to the left of the girl's body (Figure 2F).”
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Place illusion and plausibility can lead to realistic behaviour in immersive virtual environments
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From presence to consciousness through virtual reality.
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Self-citationThat's my hand! Activity in premotor cortex reflects feeling of ownership of a limb
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“in the girl's body, 1PP) and touch (TS), concordant with a recent account of self-consciousness [15].”
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If I were you: Perceptual illusion of body swapping
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Abnormalities in the awareness of action.
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Out-of-body experience and autoscopy of neurological origin
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Self-citationNeural correlates of the first-person-perspective
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Inducing illusory ownership of a virtual body
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Self-citationTowards a digital body: the virtual arm illusion
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Self-citationNeural Correlates of First-Person Perspective as One Constituent of Human Self-Consciousness
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The mechanism of self-recognition in humans.
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Threatening a rubber hand that you feel is yours elicits a cortical anxiety response.
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Autoscopic phenomena with seizures
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Spatial aspects of bodily self-consciousness.
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Self-citationA specific role for efferent information in self-recognition
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Types of body representation and the sense of embodiment
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Neural substrate of body size: illusory feeling of shrinking of the waist.
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Self and other in the human motor system.
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How Many Arms Make a Pair? Perceptual Illusion of Having an Additional Limb
Ehrsson, H. H. (2009) · Perception · doi:10.1068/p6304 · Cited by 125 · see citing works
Inducing a virtual hand ownership illusion through a brain–computer interface
Pérez-Marcos, D., Slater, M., & Sanchez-Vives, M. V. (2009) · Neuroreport · doi:10.1097/wnr.0b013e32832a0a2a · Cited by 115 · see citing works
Self-citationMorphing the body: Illusory feeling of an elongated arm affects somatosensory homunculus
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Is my body the sum of online and offline body-representations?
Manos Tsakiris, A., & Fotopoulou, A. (2008) · Consciousness and Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.concog.2008.06.012 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
Reply to Tsakiris and Fotopoulou “Is my body the sum of online and offline body representations?’’
Carruthers, G. (2008) · Consciousness and Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.concog.2008.07.008 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
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Enhancing Our Lives with Immersive Virtual Reality
Slater, M., & Sanchez-Vives, M. V. (2016) · Frontiers in Robotics and AI · doi:10.3389/frobt.2016.00074 · Cited by 1,993 · see citing works
Self-citationVirtual Reality in the Assessment, Understanding, and Treatment of Mental Health Disorders
Freeman, D., Reeve, S., Robinson, A., Ehlers, A., Clark, D., Spanlang, B., & Slater, M. (2017) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s003329171700040x · Cited by 1,428 · see citing works
Self-citationMultisensory brain mechanisms of bodily self-consciousness.
Blanke, O. (2012) · Nature Reviews Neuroscience · doi:10.1038/nrn3292 · Cited by 1,147 · see citing works
Self-citationVirtual reality in neuroscience research and therapy
Bohil, C. J., Alicea, B., & Biocca, F. A. (2011) · Nature Reviews Neuroscience · doi:10.1038/nrn3122 · Cited by 1,108 · see citing works
An Interoceptive Predictive Coding Model of Conscious Presence
Seth, A. K., Suzuki, K., & Critchley, H. D. (2012) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2011.00395 · Cited by 950 · see citing works
“Several recent studies have used VR to generalize the rubber-hand illusion to induce experiences of heautoscopy (Petkova and Ehrsson, 2008; Blanke and Metzinger, 2009) and body transfer into a VE (Slater et al., 2010b) [Heautoscopy is intermediate between autoscopy and full-blown out of body experience (Blanke and Met…”
BackgroundPutting yourself in the skin of a black avatar reduces implicit racial bias
Peck, T. C., Seinfeld, S., Aglioti, S. M., & Slater, M. (2013) · Consciousness and Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.concog.2013.04.016 · Cited by 967 · see citing works
Self-citationBehavioral, Neural, and Computational Principles of Bodily Self-Consciousness
Blanke, O., Slater, M., & Serino, A. (2015) · Neuron · doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2015.09.029 · Cited by 698 · see citing works
Self-citationBanakou, D., Groten, R., & Slater, M. (2013) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.1306779110 · Cited by 695 · see citing works
Self-citationWaltemate, T., Gall, D., Roth, D., Botsch, M., & Latoschik, M. E. (2018) · IEEE Transactions on Visualization and Computer Graphics · doi:10.1109/tvcg.2018.2794629 · Cited by 551 · see citing works
Extending body space in immersive virtual reality: a very long arm illusion
Kilteni, K., Normand, J.-M., Sanchez-Vives, M. V., & Slater, M. (2012) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0040867 · Cited by 499 · see citing works
Self-citationRecommendations for Good Scientific Practice and the Consumers of VR-Technology
Madary, M., & Metzinger, T. K. (2016) · Frontiers in Robotics and AI · doi:10.3389/frobt.2016.00003 · Cited by 435 · see citing works
The Ethics of Realism in Virtual and Augmented Reality
Slater, M., Gonzalez-Liencres, C., Haggard, P., Vinkers, C., Gregory-Clarke, R., Jelley, S., Watson, Z., Breen, G., Schwarz, R., Steptoe, W., et al. (2020) · Frontiers in Virtual Reality · doi:10.3389/frvir.2020.00001 · Cited by 410 · see citing works
Self-citationChanging bodies changes minds: Owning another body affects social cognition
Maister, L., Slater, M., Sanchez-Vives, M. V., & Tsakiris, M. (2015) · Trends in Cognitive Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.tics.2014.11.001 · Cited by 384 · see citing works
Self-citationDrumming in Immersive Virtual Reality: The Body Shapes the Way We Play
Kilteni, K., Bergstrom, I., & Slater, M. (2013) · IEEE Transactions on Visualization and Computer Graphics · doi:10.1109/tvcg.2013.29 · Cited by 326 · see citing works
Self-citationPetkova, V. I., Khoshnevis, M., & Ehrsson, H. H. (2011) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2011.00035 · Cited by 311 · see citing works
Embodying self-compassion within virtual reality and its effects on patients with depression
Falconer, C. J., Rovira, A., King, J. A., Gilbert, P., Antley, A., Fearon, P., Ralph, N., Slater, M., & Brewin, C. R. (2016) · BJPsych Open · doi:10.1192/bjpo.bp.115.002147 · Cited by 312 · see citing works
Self-citationBanakou, D., Kishore, S., & Slater, M. (2018) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00917 · Cited by 305 · see citing works
Self-citationFrom part- to whole-body ownership in the multisensory brain
Petkova, V. I., Björnsdotter, M., Gentile, G., Jonsson, T., Li, T.-Q., & Ehrsson, H. H. (2011) · Current Biology · doi:10.1016/j.cub.2011.05.022 · Cited by 301 · see citing works
Kokkinara, E., & Slater, M. (2014) · Perception · doi:10.1068/p7545 · Cited by 300 · see citing works
Self-citationMultisensory stimulation can induce an illusion of larger belly size in immersive virtual reality.
Normand, J.-M., Giannopoulos, E., Spanlang, B., & Slater, M. (2011) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0016128 · Cited by 282 · see citing works
Self-citationA Virtual Reality Full Body Illusion Improves Body Image Disturbance in Anorexia Nervosa
Keizer, A., van Elburg, A., Helms, R., & Dijkerman, H. C. (2016) · PLOS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0163921 · Cited by 265 · see citing works
Osimo, S. A., Pizarro, R., Spanlang, B., & Slater, M. (2015) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/srep13899 · Cited by 242 · see citing works
Self-citationBody ownership causes illusory self-attribution of speaking and influences subsequent real speaking
Banakou, D., & Slater, M. (2014) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.1414936111 · Cited by 223 · see citing works
Self-citationMarucci, M., Di Flumeri, G., Borghini, G., Sciaraffa, N., Scandola, M., Pavone, E. F., Babiloni, F., Betti, V., & Aricò, P. (2021) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-021-84196-8 · Cited by 170 · see citing works
Cesa, G. L., Manzoni, G. M., Bacchetta, M., Castelnuovo, G., Conti, S., Gaggioli, A., Mantovani, F., Molinari, E., Cárdenas-López, G., & Riva, G. (2013) · Journal of Medical Internet Research · doi:10.2196/jmir.2441 · Cited by 157 · see citing works
An experimental study of a virtual reality counselling paradigm using embodied self-dialogue
Slater, M., Neyret, S., Johnston, T., Iruretagoyena, G., Crespo, M. Á. D. L. C., Alabèrnia-Segura, M., Spanlang, B., & Feixas, G. (2019) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-019-46877-3 · Cited by 155 · see citing works
Self-citationEmbodying Compassion: A Virtual Reality Paradigm for Overcoming Excessive Self-Criticism
Falconer, C. J., Slater, M., Rovira, A., King, J. A., Gilbert, P., Antley, A., & Brewin, C. R. (2014) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0111933 · Cited by 155 · see citing works
Self-citationTajadura-Jiménez, A., Grehl, S., & Tsakiris, M. (2012) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0040682 · Cited by 147 · see citing works
Transcending the self in immersive virtual reality
Slater, M., & Sanchez-Vives, M. V. (2014) · Computer · doi:10.1109/mc.2014.198 · Cited by 134 · see citing works
Self-citationPerez-Marcos, D., Sanchez-Vives, M. V., & Slater, M. (2012) · Cognitive Neurodynamics · doi:10.1007/s11571-011-9178-5 · Cited by 121 · see citing works
Multi-sensory and sensorimotor foundation of bodily self-consciousness—an interdisciplinary approach
Ionta, S., Gassert, R., & Blanke, O. (2011) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2011.00383 · Cited by 84 · see citing works
Self-citationExtending the Body for Interaction with Reality
Feuchtner, T., & Müller, J. (2017) · Proceedings of the 2017 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems · doi:10.1145/3025453.3025689 · Cited by 85 · see citing works
The relationship between virtual body ownership and temperature sensitivity
Llobera, J., Sanchez-Vives, M. V., & Slater, M. (2013) · Journal of The Royal Society Interface · doi:10.1098/rsif.2013.0300 · Cited by 81 · see citing works
Self-citationGentile, G., Björnsdotter, M., Petkova, V. I., Abdulkarim, Z., & Ehrsson, H. H. (2015) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2015.01.008 · Cited by 73 · see citing works
Presence-Inducing Media for Mental Health Applications
Riva, G., Botella, C., Baños, R., Mantovani, F., García-Palacios, A., Quero, S., Serino, S., Triberti, S., Repetto, C., Dakanalis, A., et al. (2015) · Immersed in Media · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-10190-3_12 · Cited by 55 · see citing works
Memories for third-person experiences in immersive virtual reality
Iriye, H., & St. Jacques, P. L. (2021) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-021-84047-6 · Cited by 49 · see citing works
Yuen, A. S. Y., & Mak, W. W. S. (2021) · Journal of Medical Internet Research · doi:10.2196/23683 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
Visuo-tactile integration and body ownership during self-generated action
Rognini, G., Sengül, A., Aspell, J. E., Salomon, R., Bleuler, H., & Blanke, O. (2013) · European Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1111/ejn.12128 · Cited by 46 · see citing works
Self-citationTime to Get Personal: Individualised Virtual Reality for Mental Health
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Virtual Reality for Criminologists: A Road Map
van Gelder, J.-L. (2023) · Crime and Justice · doi:10.1086/726691 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
“Provided certain conditions are met, virtual embodiment can lead to the temporary illusion of body ownership or “ transformation ” (Slater et al. 2010; Bombari et al. 2015; Mol 2019).”
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Virtual Reality for Addressing Depression and Anxiety: A Bibliometric Analysis
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Self-citationInterpersonal Motor Interactions Shape Multisensory Representations of the Peripersonal Space
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Virtual Reality and Other Realities
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Exploring the implications of the metaverse: opportunities and challenges for dance movement therapy
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“Furthermore, the potential future integration of Brain-Computer Interfaces holds promise for stimulating the senses in VR (Slater et al., 2009).”
Creating safe environments for children: prevention of trauma in the Extended Verse
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- Authors
- Slater, M., Spanlang, B., Sanchez-Vives, M. V., & Blanke, O.
- Affiliations
- Institució Catalana de Recerca i Estudis Avançats (ES)
- Universitat de Barcelona (ES)
- École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (CH)
- Corresponding author
- Slater, Mel
- Venue
- PLoS ONE
- Publisher
- Public Library of Science (PLoS)
- Published
- 2010-05-12
- Volume
- 5
- Issue
- 5
- Pages
- e10564
- ISSN
- 1932-6203 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC2868878
- OpenAlex
- W2163290657
- Cited by
- 1,090
- References
- 40
- Citations by year
- 2026: 95 · 2025: 87 · 2024: 76 · 2023: 92 · 2022: 95 · 2021: 103 · 2020: 90 · 2019: 82 · 2018: 83 · 2017: 53 · 2016: 40 · 2015: 51 · 2014: 52 · 2013: 40 · 2012: 23
- FWCI
- 56.31
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Locations
- PLoS ONE (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Dipòsit Digital de la Universitat de Barcelona (Universitat de Barcelona) (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- RECERCAT (Consorci de Serveis Universitaris de Catalunya) (publishedVersion, other-oa)
- RePEc: Research Papers in Economics (submittedVersion)
- DIGITAL.CSIC (Spanish National Research Council (CSIC)) (submittedVersion)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
- UCL Discovery (University College London) (submittedVersion)
- Figshare (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- Infoscience (Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne) (submittedVersion)
- Infoscience (Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- Funders
- European Commission (27731)
- FP7 Ideas: European Research Council (227985)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Human-Computer Interaction › Virtual Reality Applications and Impacts
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Free Will and Agency
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Tactile and Sensory Interactions
- Keywords
- body ownership, immersive virtual reality, first-person perspective, specular reflection, representation of the body, heart rate response
- MeSH terms
- Adult, Body Image, Heart Rate, Humans, Male, Surveys and Questionnaires, User-Computer Interface, Visual Perception
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Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
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