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Cited by 26Wildlife Ecology and ConservationRangeland and Wildlife ManagementEvolution and Paleontology Studies

Bos frontalis and Bos gaurus (Artiodactyla: Bovidae)

Open access
Ahrestani, Farshid S·2018·Mammalian Species
DOI 10.1093/mspecies/sey004
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Abstract

Bos frontalis Lambert, 1804 and Bos gaurus Hamilton-Smith, 1827 are the domestic and wild forms, respectively, of the bovid commonly called the gaur. It is the world’s largest cattle species. Bos gaurus is endemic to south and southeastern Asia, and today, the majority of its population occurs in India. It is sexually dimorphic, with adult males having a distinctive dorsal ridge and often a dewlap. Although B. gaurus consumes numerous browse species, it is primarily a grazer. Except for older males, all other B. gaurus are nearly always found in herds. It is classified as a Vulnerable species, and in 2011–2012, the first reintroductions of B. gaurus occurred in central India.

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

This Mammalian Species account synthesizes the biology of the domestic gaur, *Bos frontalis*, and the wild gaur, *Bos gaurus*, the world’s largest cattle species. It covers taxonomy, morphology, distribution, ecology, behavior, genetics, and conservation, emphasizing that *B. gaurus* is Vulnerable and has declined severely across much of its South and Southeast Asian range.

Key findings

  • *Bos frontalis* is treated as the domestic form and *Bos gaurus* as the wild form of the gaur; *B. gaurus* is endemic to south and southeastern Asia, with >80% of the global population in India and the largest population (3,000–5,000) in the 5,520 km² Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve.
  • The global *B. gaurus* population is estimated at 13,000–30,000 and projected to decline by 30% over the next 3 decades; it is listed as Vulnerable, with major threats including habitat loss, poaching for meat and horns, and fatal diseases from overlapping cattle.
  • Although it consumes many browse species, *B. gaurus* is primarily a grazer: grasses made up 85% (range 66–100%) of rumen contents of 4 autopsied in Kanha, 66% of diet in Nepal, and graminoids >60% of epidermal fragments in feces in central India.
  • It is sexually dimorphic: adult males can exceed 900 kg and develop a dorsal ridge and dewlaps, while females are <600 kg; 19 gaur were translocated from Kanha to Bandhavgarh in January 2011 (5 males, 14 females), and the reintroduced population has been thriving.

Methods

  • This is a Mammalian Species species account, not a primary empirical study; it is a narrative synthesis of published literature, historical naturalist accounts, field studies, zoo records, and museum specimens.
  • The account compiles and reviews taxonomy, diagnosis, distribution, fossil record, form and function, ontogeny and reproduction, ecology, behavior, genetics, and conservation, using cited measurements and records rather than new data collection.

Limitations

  • Stated: evidence to split *B. gaurus* into subspecies remains inconclusive; Lydekker’s 3 subspecies were based on only 5–6 specimens and relied on morphological differences later proved incorrect, and later 2-subspecies proposals were also based on small skull samples with no conclusive genetic corroboration.
  • Stated: detailed studies of herd formation, maintenance, social organization, and relatedness are lacking; no data exist for the estrous cycle of *B. gaurus*; and status is poorly understood or unknown in several range countries, including Myanmar, Vietnam, and China.
  • Evident: many life-history, reproductive, and ecological conclusions rely on captive populations, historical hunting records, and anecdotal naturalist observations, and several population estimates are uncertain or based on limited surveys.

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1093/mspecies/sey004

Cites

110 of 110 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Nothing to recompute.

Claims the paper makes

21 of 371 cited sources checked · 8 supported · 2 flagged · accuracy not yet measured

  • Premisecitation
    § ECOLOGY

    In Nepal, B. gaurus has been found to feed on 49 plant species (23 grasses, 17 browse species, and 9 herbs and others).

    “in Nepal, B. gaurus has been found to feed on 49 plant species (23 grasses, 17 browse species, and 9 herbs and others- Chetri 2003Chetri , 2006) )”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim2 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Chetri 2003 source

      The paper reports different counts for gaur in Parsa Wildlife Reserve, Nepal. Its pooled analysis (Food habits: gaur vs. livestock, p. 3) records 38 plant species—20 grasses, 11 browse species, and 7 herbs and others—not the attributed 49, 23, 17, and 9. (LLM, conf=0.89)

      Checked by a reasoning model — may be wrong.

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • cites Chetri 2006 source
  • Premisecitation
    § FORM AND FUNCTION

    Ovarian oocytes of immature Bos gaurus were capable of in vitro maturation and fertilization with thawed homologous spermatozoa.

    “Johnston et al. (1994) found that ovarian oocytes of immature Bos gaurus were capable of in vitro maturation and fertilization with thawed homologous spermatozoa and that the resulting embryos were capable of advancing to blastocysts in culture and of producing live-born offspring after embryo transfer.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Johnston et al. 1994 source
  • Premisecitation
    § DISTRIBUTION

    The majority of B. gaurus in Vietnam are confined to Cat Tien National Park.

    “The majority of B. gaurus in Vietnam are confined to Cat Tien National Park (Polet and Ling 2004;Nguyen 2009).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Polet and Ling 2004 source
    • cites Nguyen 2009 source

      The Cat Tien National Park section reports 86 gaur, and the Results report 121 across the three surveyed protected areas, so Cat Tien held a majority of those observed. The paper does not establish that a majority of all gaur in Vietnam were confined to the park; its Introduction also describes gaur in other areas. Page numbers were not available in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.86)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
  • Premisecitation
    § FORM AND FUNCTION

    The embryos developed to the blastocyst stage in 7 days.

    “Specifically, the embryos developed to the blastocyst stage in 7 days, and a live-born calf was delivered 308 days after transferring the embryos to Holstein recipients.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Johnston et al. 1994 source
  • Premisecitation
    § ONTOGENY AND REPRODUCTION

    The gestation period for B. gaurus is between 9 and 10 months, about 280 days.

    “Data from Omaha Zoo, United States, and Mysore Zoo, India, suggest that the gestation period for B. gaurus is between 9 and 10 months, about 280 days (Ahrestani and Prins 2011).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Ahrestani and Prins 2011 source

      The available indexed passages are bibliographic records for Ahrestani and Prins (2011), not text discussing gestation. Searches for the Omaha and Mysore zoo data, pregnancy duration, and 280 days returned no passage addressing the claim. (LLM, conf=0.72)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 84
  • May combine two claims. 77

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation
    § ONTOGENY AND REPRODUCTION

    The average duration of how long female B. frontalis remain in heat was found to be 45 days.

    “Although no data exist for B. gaurus, the average length of the estrous cycle in the domestic form Bos frontalis has been found to be 22 days, and the average duration of how long female B. frontalis remain in heat was found to be 45 days (Giasuddin et al. 2003).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Giasuddin et al. 2003 source

      The “Length of estrous cycle and duration of heat” section reports an average heat duration of 45.4±12.2 hours, not 45 days. It separately reports an estrous cycle of 21.9±2.9 days, consistent with the other figure in the citing sentence. No page number is provided in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.95)

      Checked by a reasoning model — may be wrong.

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § Abstract

    Bos gaurus is sexually dimorphic, with adult males having a distinctive dorsal ridge and often a dewlap.

    “It is sexually dimorphic, with adult males having a distinctive dorsal ridge and often a dewlap.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Ahrestani and Prins 2011 source

      The available passages identify the paper as concerning age and sex determination of gaur, but provide no description of male anatomy. Searches for “dorsal ridge,” “dewlap,” and sexual dimorphism found no passage addressing the claimed traits. (LLM, conf=0.76)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § GENERAL CHARACTERS

    Bos gaurus is a sexually dimorphic species, and differences between the sexes begin to be noticeable after the age of 2 years.

    “Bos gaurus is a sexually dimorphic species (Figs. 1 and 2), and differences between the sexes begin to be noticeable after the age of 2 years (Ahrestani and Prins 2011).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Ahrestani and Prins 2011 source

      The indexed passages contain the paper’s title and citation metadata, but no findings about sexual dimorphism or when differences between male and female gaur become noticeable. Searches for sexual dimorphism, sex differences, and the two-year age threshold found no passage addressing the claim. (LLM, conf=0.73)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § DIAGNOSIS

    Except for the yak (Bos mutus), which is hairy and has 14 dorsal and 5 lumbar vertebrae, Bos gaurus shares its traits of not being hairy and having 13 dorsal and 6 lumbar vertebrae with the other Bos and Bubalus wild cattle species of Asia.

    “Except for the yak (Bos mutus), which is hairy and has 14 dorsal and 5 lumbar vertebrae (Leslie and Schaller 2009), Bos gaurus shares its traits of not being hairy and having 13 dorsal and 6 lumbar vertebrae with the other Bos and Bubalus wild cattle species of Asia.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Leslie and Schaller 2009 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation
    § GENERAL CHARACTERS

    Based on measurements of 9 captive males and 14 captive females, Ahrestani and Prins (2011) reported a maximum shoulder height of 175 cm for males and 148 cm for females.

    “Based on measurements of 9 captive males and 14 captive females, Ahrestani and Prins (2011) reported a maximum shoulder height of 175 cm for males and 148 cm for females.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Ahrestani and Prins (2011) source

      The available passages labeled Abstract contain bibliographic information, not the study’s measurements. Searches for the captive sample sizes and the 175 cm and 148 cm shoulder heights found no passage that verifies the claim. (LLM, conf=0.72)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § FORM AND FUNCTION

    The resulting embryos from in vitro maturation and fertilization of immature Bos gaurus oocytes were capable of advancing to blastocysts in culture and of producing live-born offspring after embryo transfer.

    “Johnston et al. (1994) found that ovarian oocytes of immature Bos gaurus were capable of in vitro maturation and fertilization with thawed homologous spermatozoa and that the resulting embryos were capable of advancing to blastocysts in culture and of producing live-born offspring after embryo transfer.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Johnston et al. 1994 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § ONTOGENY AND REPRODUCTION

    Although no data exist for B. gaurus, the average length of the estrous cycle in the domestic form Bos frontalis has been found to be 22 days.

    “Although no data exist for B. gaurus, the average length of the estrous cycle in the domestic form Bos frontalis has been found to be 22 days, and the average duration of how long female B. frontalis remain in heat was found to be 45 days (Giasuddin et al. 2003).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Giasuddin et al. 2003 source

      The 'Length of estrous cycle and duration of heat' section reports an average estrous cycle of 21.9±2.9 days in gayal, supporting the rounded figure of 22 days. The same passage gives heat duration as 45.4±12.2 hours, not the 45 days stated in the full citing sentence. It does not establish that no data exist for B. gaurus. (LLM, conf=0.90)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation
    § ONTOGENY AND REPRODUCTION

    The mean daily milk yield of B. frontalis females in Bangladesh is 305 ml.

    “A study of 13 B. frontalis females in Bangladesh found the mean daily milk yield and lactation length were 305 ml and 117 days, respectively (Giasuddin et al. 2003).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Giasuddin et al. 2003 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Findingnone given
    § ECOLOGY

    There is no evidence to support the claim that B. gaurus moves to hilly terrain to escape insects.

    “but there is no evidence to support the oft-mentioned claim that B. gaurus moves to hilly terrain to escape insects.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingown data
    § CONSERVATION

    The greatest length of the skull of adult male Bos gaurus specimen AMNH 54468 is 683 mm.

    “Greatest length of skull is 683 mm.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation
    § Bos gour

    F. Cuvier (1824) provided the first colored illustrations of male and female B. gaurus that were based on the description of wild B. gaurus by M. Alfred Duvaucel.

    “F. Cuvier (1824) provided the first colored illustrations of male and female B. gaurus that were based on the description of wild B. gaurus by M. Alfred Duvaucel.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites F. Cuvier (1824)

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation
    § Bos gaurus Hamilton-Smith, 1827

    Lydekker (1907) classified 3 subspecies of Bos gaurus: B. gaurus gaurus (Bangladesh, India, and Nepal), B. gaurus readei (Burma and China), and B. gaurus hubbacki (Malaysia).

    “Lydekker (1907) classified 3 subspecies of Bos gaurus: B. gaurus gaurus (Bangladesh, India, and Nepal), B. gaurus readei (Burma and China), and B. gaurus hubbacki (Malaysia).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Lydekker (1907)

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § DIAGNOSIS

    Species in the subfamily Bovinae are large and have stout bodies, hollow horns, relatively short legs, long tails with a terminal tuft of hair, broad muzzles, and no facial, pedal, or inguinal glands.

    “Species in the subfamily Bovinae are large and have stout bodies, hollow horns, relatively short legs, long tails with a terminal tuft of hair, broad muzzles, and no facial, pedal, or inguinal glands (Blanford 1888;Lydekker 1913).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Blanford 1888

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Lydekker 1913

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § DIAGNOSIS

    Extant species of Bovini are further distinguished from other Bovinae species by their low, wide skulls, internal sinuses in the frontals extending into the horn cores, a short braincase and widened occiput, molars with larger basal pillars and complicated central cavities, and upper molars that are strongly hypsodont.

    “Extant species of Bovini are further distinguished from other Bovinae species by their low, wide skulls, internal sinuses in the frontals extending into the horn cores, a short braincase and widened occiput, molars with larger basal pillars and complicated central cavities, and upper molars that are strongly hypsodont (Lydekker 1913;Gentry 1992;Grubb 2005;Groves and Grubb 2011).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Lydekker 1913

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Gentry 1992 source
    • cites Grubb 2005

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § Abstract

    Bos frontalis and Bos gaurus are the domestic and wild forms, respectively, of the bovid commonly called the gaur.

    “Bos frontalis Lambert, 1804 and Bos gaurus Hamilton-Smith, 1827 are the domestic and wild forms, respectively, of the bovid commonly called the gaur.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Gentry et al. 2004 source
    • cites International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature 2003

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § Bos gour

    Hardwicke (1827) coined his Bos gour synonym based on the detailed description by Traill (1824), who described an animal he thought was known as gour in India.

    “Hardwicke (1827) coined his Bos gour synonym based on the detailed description by Traill (1824), who described an animal he thought was known as gour in India.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Hardwicke (1827)

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Traill (1824)

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation
    § Bos gour

    Kerr (1792) included Bos bubalus guavera in his list of Mammalia of the Animal Kingdom based on the description by Knox (1681) of a wild buffalo with white legs called gauvera in Ceylon.

    “Kerr (1792) included Bos bubalus guavera in his list of Mammalia of the Animal Kingdom based on the description by Knox (1681:21) of a wild buffalo with white legs called gauvera in Ceylon.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Kerr (1792)

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Knox (1681)

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § Bos gaurus Hamilton-Smith, 1827

    More recently, based on skull and horn measurements, 2 subspecies were proposed: B. gaurus gaurus in India and Nepal (and possibly Bangladesh) and B. gaurus laosiensis in Myanmar (Burma), Lao PDR, Vietnam, Cambodia, Thailand, and West Malaysia (and presumably southern China).

    “More recently, based on skull and horn measurements, 2 subspecies were proposed (Groves 2003;Groves and Grubb 2011): B. gaurus gaurus in India and Nepal (and possibly Bangladesh) and B. gaurus laosiensis in Myanmar (Burma), Lao PDR, Vietnam, Cambodia, Thailand, and West Malaysia (and presumably southern China).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Groves 2003 source
    • cites Groves and Grubb 2011

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation
    § Bos gour

    Pennant (1792), also referring to Knox (1681), described a subspecies of buffalo from Ceylon with legs that are white one-half way from the hoofs as gauvera in his History of quadrupeds.

    “Pennant (1792:31), also referring to Knox (1681), described a subspecies of buffalo from Ceylon with”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Pennant (1792)

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Knox (1681)

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § Bos gour

    Wilson and Reeder (2005) list Bos diardii Temminck, 1838, and Bos frontatus Temminck, 1938, as synonyms of Bos gaurus Hamilton-Smith, 1827a, and Bos frontalis Temminck, 1838 as synonyms of Bos frantalis Lambert, 1804, while using Bos frontalis to refer to both the wild and domestic forms; they clarify that references for both these synonyms were nomen nudum.

    “Although Wilson and Reeder (2005) list Bos diardii Temminck, 1838, and Bos frontatus Temminck, 1938, as synonyms of Bos gaurus Hamilton-Smith, 1827a, and Bos frontalis Temminck, 1838 as synonyms of Bos frantalis Lambert, 1804-while using Bos frontalis to refer to both the wild and domestic forms-they clarify that references for both these synonyms were”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Wilson and Reeder (2005)

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § Bos gour

    Colebrooke (1808) provided the first detailed description and measurements of wild and domestic form and called the animal gayal, which is one of the common names for the domestic form.

    “Colebrooke (1808) provided the first detailed description and measurements of wild and domestic form and called the animal gayal, which is one of the common names for the domestic form.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Colebrooke (1808)

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisenone given
    § GENERAL CHARACTERS

    Frontals and parietals of the skull are in a single plane and are similar to other Bos species.

    “Frontals and parietals of the skull are in a single plane and are similar to other Bos species (Fig. 5).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisenone given
    § GENERAL CHARACTERS

    The white stockings (all 4 legs, starting just above the knee in both sexes, are white) develop from the age of 3 months.

    “The white stockings (all 4 legs, starting just above the knee in both sexes, are white) develop from the age of 3 months (Fig. 1).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § GENERAL CHARACTERS

    Length of tail was 86 cm and 89 cm.

    “Length of tail was 86 cm (Dunbar-Brander 1923) and 89 cm (Cameron 1929).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Dunbar-Brander 1923

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Cameron 1929

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation
    § GENERAL CHARACTERS

    Length from nose to root of the tail of a male's body was reported to be 249 cm and 284 cm.

    “Length from nose to root of the tail of a male's body was reported to be 249 cm (Cameron 1929) and 284 cm (Dunbar-Brander 1923).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Cameron 1929

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Dunbar-Brander 1923

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Premisenone given
    § DIAGNOSIS

    Both sexes in all 3 species have white lower legs, and females of both species are primarily brown and males are primarily black.

    “Both sexes in all 3 species have white lower legs, and females of both species are primarily brown and males are primarily black.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisenone given
    § GENERAL CHARACTERS

    Females are smaller in size (< 600 kg) and have a brown pelage.

    “Females are smaller in size (< 600 kg) and have a brown pelage (Figs. 1 and 2).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisenone given
    § GENERAL CHARACTERS

    Female horns extend outward a lot less, and are thus closer to one another, and have a spiral curvature that makes the horns point at each other; the inward curvature of female horns begins by the age of 2 years.

    “Female horns, in contrast, extend outward a lot less, and are thus closer to one another, and have a spiral curvature that makes the horns point at each other; the inward curvature of female horns begins by the age of 2 years (Figs. 3 and 4).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation
    § GENERAL CHARACTERS

    Hind foot length is about 55 cm.

    “Hind foot length is about 55 cm (Cameron 1929)”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Cameron 1929

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisenone given
    § GENERAL CHARACTERS

    Young calves (0-2 months) have light orange-brown body coats and do not have white stockings.

    “Young calves (0-2 months) have light orange-brown body coats and do not have white stockings.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation
    § GENERAL CHARACTERS

    For males, the circumference of horns at the base has been measured to be 43-58 cm.

    “For males, the circumference of horns at the base has been measured to be 43-58 cm (Baker 1903;Pillay 1952)”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Baker 1903

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Pillay 1952 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisenone given
    § GENERAL CHARACTERS

    Ear length is about 23 cm.

    “ear length is about 23 cm.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Premisenone given
    § DIAGNOSIS

    Adult male B. gaurus are further distinguishable from adult male B. javanicus by their very muscular appearance.

    “Adult male B. gaurus are further distinguishable from adult male B. javanicus by their very muscular appearance”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisenone given
    § DIAGNOSIS

    Bos javanicus has a white patch on its rump that B. gaurus does not.

    “Bos javanicus, however, has a white patch on its rump that B. gaurus does not”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation
    § GENERAL CHARACTERS

    Other records of shoulder height of males include 145 cm, 176 cm, 178 cm, and 197 cm.

    “Other records of shoulder height of males include those killed in hunts: 145 cm (Cameron 1929), 176 cm (Inverarity 1889), 178 cm (Forsyth 1889), and197 cm (Pillay 1952).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Cameron 1929

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Inverarity 1889

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Forsyth 1889

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation
    § DISTRIBUTION

    Bos gaurus is most probably extinct in Bangladesh; no records have been reported since the 1970s.

    “Bos gaurus is most probably extinct in Bangladesh; no records have been reported since the 1970s (Khan 1985).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Khan 1985

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Premisenone given
    § GENERAL CHARACTERS

    A muscular elevated dorsal ridge and dewlaps that hang under the neck and chin easily distinguish adult males from females.

    “A muscular elevated dorsal ridge and dewlaps that hang under the neck and chin easily distinguish adult males from females.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation
    § GENERAL CHARACTERS

    The skull of a male B. gaurus has been recorded to weigh about 21 kg.

    “The skull of a male B. gaurus has been recorded to weigh about 21 kg (Robison 1941).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Robison 1941

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given
    § GENERAL CHARACTERS

    The proportion of the length of legs to its body mass is probably one of the smallest in the animal kingdom.

    “the proportion of the length of legs to its body mass is probably one of the smallest in the animal kingdom.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premiseown data
    § GENERAL CHARACTERS

    Horns of males are thicker and extend outwards first before curving inward, which results in the horns on males being further apart from each other.

    “Horns of males are thicker and extend outwards first before curving inward, which results in the horns on males being further apart from each other (Figs. 3 and 4).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation
    § GENERAL CHARACTERS

    Reported weights of adult females shot in hunts were 440 kg (excluding blood) and 703 kg.

    “Reported weights of adult females shot in hunts were as follows: 440 kg (excluding blood-Schaller 1967) and 703 kg (Meinertzhagen 1939).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Schaller 1967

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Meinertzhagen 1939

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Premisenone given
    § DIAGNOSIS

    The brown pelage of female B. javanicus is a shade lighter than the brown pelage of female B. gaurus.

    “the brown pelage of female B. javanicus is a shade lighter than the brown pelage of female B. gaurus.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisereasoning
    § GENERAL CHARACTERS

    The eyes sometimes appear blue under certain light conditions because of the presence of tapetum lucidum, a membrane behind the retina that makes the eyes of several animals shine in the dark.

    “The eyes, however, sometimes appear blue under certain light conditions because of the presence of tapetum lucidum, a membrane behind the retina that makes the eyes of several animals shine in the dark.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisenone given
    § GENERAL CHARACTERS

    Both sexes have a light brown boss between their horns.

    “Both sexes have a light brown”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § DISTRIBUTION

    More than 80% of the global population of B. gaurus is found in India, distributed over three widely separated geographical regions: the Western Ghats, central India, and northeastern India.

    “More than 80% of the global population of B. gaurus is found in India, distributed over 3 widely separated geographical regions: the Western Ghats, central India, and northeastern India (Choudhury 2002).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Choudhury 2002 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § DISTRIBUTION

    In the last century, the overall distribution of B. gaurus has shrunk by more than 80%, and today B. gaurus is mainly found in protected areas.

    “In the last century, the overall distribution of B. gaurus has shrunk by > 80%, and today, B. gaurus is mainly found in protected areas (Schaller 1967;Choudhury 2002;Ahrestani and Karanth 2014).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Schaller 1967

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Choudhury 2002 source
    • cites Ahrestani and Karanth 2014 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisenone given
    § GENERAL CHARACTERS

    Males grow rapidly to attain large sizes (> 900 kg) and develop a black pelage with age; adult males, generally > 5 years are referred to as black bulls.

    “Males grow rapidly to attain large sizes (> 900 kg) and develop a black pelage with age; adult males, generally > 5 years are referred to as black bulls.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisenone given
    § GENERAL CHARACTERS

    Horns in both sexes are black in their early stages of development and, with advancing age, begin to whiten from the base up.

    “Horns in both sexes are black in their early stages of development and, with advancing age, begin to whiten from the base up.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisenone given
    § GENERAL CHARACTERS

    The eyes of a B. gaurus are normally colored brown.

    “The eyes of a B. gaurus are normally colored brown.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation
    § GENERAL CHARACTERS

    Reported weights of adult males shot in the wild were 590, 782, 864, 864, 931, and 941 kg.

    “Reported weights of adult males shot in the wild were as follows: 590, 782, 864, 864, 931, and 941 kg (Dunbar-Brander 1923;Meinertzhagen 1939;Morris 1947).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Dunbar-Brander 1923

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Meinertzhagen 1939

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Morris 1947 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Premisenone given
    § GENERAL CHARACTERS

    Horns on both sexes appear to grow throughout the lifetime of an individual, and it is not uncommon to see old females with horns that are nearly touching.

    “Horns on both sexes appear to grow throughout the lifetime of an individual, and it is not uncommon to see old females with horns that are nearly touching.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation
    § FORM AND FUNCTION

    Mean body temperatures for 2 B. gaurus were 38.2°C and 38.8°C.

    “Mean heart rates for 5 B. gaurus ranged from 49.3 to 57.7 beats/min, and mean body temperatures for 2 B. gaurus were 38.2°C and 38.8°C (Thomas et al. 1996).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Thomas et al. 1996

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § FORM AND FUNCTION

    Moving B. gaurus to novel environments or pairing them with nonaffiliates increased heart rates.

    “Moving B. gaurus to novel environments or pairing them with nonaffiliates also increased heart rates (Thomas et al. 1996).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Thomas et al. 1996

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation
    § FORM AND FUNCTION

    Mean heart rates for 5 B. gaurus ranged from 49.3 to 57.7 beats/min.

    “Mean heart rates for 5 B. gaurus ranged from 49.3 to 57.7 beats/min, and mean body temperatures for 2 B. gaurus were 38.2°C and 38.8°C (Thomas et al. 1996).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Thomas et al. 1996

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § FOSSIL RECORD

    The origins of Bos and the relationships of fossils attributed to this genus remain problematic.

    “In general, the origins of Bos and the relationships of fossils that have been attributed to this genus remain problematic, which when combined with the poor fossil record from Africa for the time period 7-10 million years ago has made it difficult to confirm whether or not the Bovini tribe originated in southern Asia (Bibi et al. 2009).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Bibi et al. 2009

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation
    § FORM AND FUNCTION

    A distinguishing feature of a male Bos gaurus is its dorsal ridge, formed by a row of single bones springing from the back bone immediately behind the junction of each pair of ribs, of which B. gaurus has 13 pairs.

    “A distinguishing feature of a male Bos gaurus is its dorsal ridge, which is”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Inverarity 1889:295

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation
    § DISTRIBUTION

    The overall population of B. gaurus in China does not exceed 200.

    “Although the exact status of the populations in these regions is unknown, it is understood that the overall population of B. gaurus in China does not exceed 200 (H.Jianlin, pers.comm.).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites H.Jianlin, pers.comm.

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation
    § FOSSIL RECORD

    Fossils of Bos-like species found in India have been dated as belonging to the Upper Pliocene, i.e., 3.5-5 million years ago.

    “In general, fossils of Bos-like species found in India have been dated as belonging to the Upper Pliocene, i.e., 3.5-5 million years ago (Pilgrim 1939;Chauhan 2008).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Pilgrim 1939

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Chauhan 2008 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § FORM AND FUNCTION

    Short-duration adverse stimuli caused a brief 3-fold increase in heart rate in B. gaurus, but baseline rates returned after the stressors were removed.

    “Short-duration adverse stimuli caused brief 3-fold increase in heart rate, but baseline rates returned after the stressors were removed.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Thomas et al. 1996

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § FORM AND FUNCTION

    The dental formula of B. gaurus is i 0/4, c 0/0, p 3/3, m 3/3, total 32, which is the same as that of cattle.

    “The dental formula is i 0/4, c 0/0, p 3/3, m 3/3, total 32 (A.Bourgeois, pers.comm.), which is the same as that of cattle.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites A.Bourgeois, pers.comm.

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation
    § DISTRIBUTION

    A report from nearly 20 years stated that B. gaurus had been extirpated from much of Yunnan province.

    “A report from nearly 20 years stated that B. gaurus had been extirpated from much of Yunnan province (Xiang and Santiapillai 1993).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Xiang and Santiapillai 1993

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § DISTRIBUTION

    During a national tiger survey from over a decade ago, B. gaurus was camera trapped in 11 of 15 sites, with a high rate of capture in 5 of these sites.

    “The status of B. gaurus in Myanmar is poorly understood, though during a national tiger survey from over a decade ago, B. gaurus was camera trapped in 11 of 15 sites, with a high rate of capture in 5 of these sites (Lynam 2003).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Lynam 2003

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation
    § ONTOGENY AND REPRODUCTION

    Calves were born in April-June in central India.

    “Stebbing (1911) and Sanderson (1912) not only reported similar months but also noted that calves were born in April-June”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Stebbing (1911)

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Sanderson (1912)

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation
    § ONTOGENY AND REPRODUCTION

    In Malaysia, young were seen at all times except from October to December.

    “Hubback (1937) reported seeing young in Malaysia at all times except from October to December”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Hubback (1937) source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation
    § ONTOGENY AND REPRODUCTION

    The majority of calves in central India were born in August-September.

    “Dunbar-Brander (1923) reported that the majority of mating in central India occurred in December-January, with the majority of calves born in August-September”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Dunbar-Brander (1923)

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation
    § ONTOGENY AND REPRODUCTION

    pH level in the semen ranges from 6.58 to 8.42.

    “Volume of semen in a single ejaculation ranges from 0.2 to 11.0 ml, and pH level in the semen ranges from 6.58 to 8.42 (Iswadi et al. 2016).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Iswadi et al. 2016

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation
    § ONTOGENY AND REPRODUCTION

    Peak rutting activity in Nagarahole, southern India, occurs in June-September (wet season).

    “K. U. Karanth (in litt.)found peak rutting activity in June-September (wet season) in Nagarahole, southern India”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites K. U. Karanth (in litt.)

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation
    § ONTOGENY AND REPRODUCTION

    The longest continuous suckling by a calf has been recorded to be about 9 min.

    “The longest continuous suckling by a calf has been recorded to be about 9 min (Schaller 1967).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Schaller 1967

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § ONTOGENY AND REPRODUCTION

    Primiparity (age at first birth) for captive B. gaurus is 3 years, which is similar to what has been observed for other Bovini species.

    “Primiparity (i.e., age at first birth) for captive B. gaurus is 3 years, which is similar to what has been observed for other Bovini species (Ahrestani et al. 2011).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Ahrestani et al. 2011

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation
    § ONTOGENY AND REPRODUCTION

    Volume of semen in a single ejaculation ranges from 0.2 to 11.0 ml.

    “Volume of semen in a single ejaculation ranges from 0.2 to 11.0 ml, and pH level in the semen ranges from 6.58 to 8.42 (Iswadi et al. 2016).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Iswadi et al. 2016

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation
    § ONTOGENY AND REPRODUCTION

    The population density of B. gaurus in Huai Kha Khaeng Wildlife Sanctuary, western Thailand, was 1.8 (1.3-2.3, 95% CI) in 1998.

    “The population density in Huai Kha Khaeng Wildlife Sanctuary, western Thailand, was reported to be 1.8 (1.3-2.3,95% CI) in 1998 (Srikosamatara 1993).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Srikosamatara 1993 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation
    § ONTOGENY AND REPRODUCTION

    The peak rutting period in southern India was from November to March.

    “Morris (1937) reported that the peak rutting period in southern India was from November to March”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Morris (1937)

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation
    § ONTOGENY AND REPRODUCTION

    Calves rarely suckle beyond the age of 6 months.

    “it is understood that calves rarely suckle beyond the age of 6 months (Schaller 1967).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Schaller 1967

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation
    § ONTOGENY AND REPRODUCTION

    The majority of mating in central India occurred in December-January.

    “Dunbar-Brander (1923) reported that the majority of mating in central India occurred in December-January, with the majority of calves born in August-September”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Dunbar-Brander (1923)

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § ONTOGENY AND REPRODUCTION

    Single births are the rule for B. gaurus; there are no records of twins.

    “Schaller (1967:181) reported that”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Schaller (1967:181)

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation
    § ONTOGENY AND REPRODUCTION

    In Kanha, India, the frequency of rutting call and other aspects of sexual behavior reached a peak in March and April.

    “Schaller (1967:180), while having observed calves throughout the year, reported that”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Schaller (1967:180)

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § ECOLOGY

    In Kanha National Park, central India, the adult male:female ratio has been reported as 50:100 and 80:200.

    “and 50:100 (Belsare et al. 1984) and 80:200 (Schaller 1967) from Kanha National Park”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Belsare et al. 1984

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Schaller 1967

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation
    § ECOLOGY

    In Nagarahole Tiger Reserve, the adult male:female ratio has been reported as 18:100.

    “18:100 (Karanth and Sunquist 1992) in Nagarahole Tiger Reserve”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Karanth and Sunquist 1992 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given
    § ECOLOGY

    Bos gaurus forages day and night and seems to prefer to forage at night, dawn, and dusk in areas with warm climate.

    “Bos gaurus forages day and night and seems to prefer to forage at night, dawn, and dusk in areas with warm climate.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning
    § ECOLOGY

    The ratio of adult females:males in B. gaurus populations is often 2:1, and sometimes 4:1.

    “The ratio of adult females:males in B. gaurus populations is often 2:1, and sometimes 4:1.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § ECOLOGY

    During the hottest periods of the day, B. gaurus often retreats to forested areas to chew cud, often done while lying down.

    “During the hottest periods of the day, B. gaurus often retreats to forested areas to chew cud, often done while lying down (Forsyth 1889;Krishnan 1972; F. S. Ahrestani, in litt.).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Forsyth 1889

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Krishnan 1972 source
    • cites F. S. Ahrestani, in litt.

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § ECOLOGY

    During Schaller's study, the majority of B. gaurus were under shelter of trees by 0700 h, were rarely seen in the open after 0800 h, and emerged from forested patches to open grasslands in the evenings.

    “During his seminal study, Schaller (1967) observed that the majority of B. gaurus were under shelter of trees by 0700 h, were rarely seen in the open after 0800 h, and emerged from forested patches to open grasslands in the evenings.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Schaller (1967)

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation
    § ECOLOGY

    B. gaurus have historically and even today use mineral licks throughout their distributional range.

    “B. gaurus have historically and even today use mineral licks throughout their distributional range (Inverarity 1889;Hubback 1937;Ogilvie 1954;Schaller 1967;Krishnan 1972;Weigum 1972;Steinmetz 2004).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Inverarity 1889

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Hubback 1937 source
    • cites Ogilvie 1954

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § ECOLOGY

    In Lao PDR, Vietnam, and Cambodia, B. gaurus is found in evergreen forests, montane forests, and in both open and closed lowland forests, with the species frequenting grassy openings in closed canopy forests.

    “In Lao PDR, Vietnam, and Cambodia, B. gaurus is found in evergreen forests, montane forests, and in both open and closed lowland forests, with the species frequenting grassy openings in closed canopy forests (Duckworth et al. 1999;Timmins and Rattanak 2001).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Duckworth et al. 1999
    • cites Timmins and Rattanak 2001

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § ECOLOGY

    In Garumara Wildlife Sanctuary and the Rairakhol region, B. gaurus is absent during the dry season and present during the rest of the year.

    “in both Garumara Wildlife Sanctuary, West Bengal, and the Rairakhol region, Orissa, India, B. gaurus was found to be absent during the dry season (July-October, Garumara- Guin and Pal 1982;March-July, Rairakhol-Imam 1985), but was present during the rest of the year.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Guin and Pal 1982

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Imam 1985

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation
    § ECOLOGY

    Same solitary male B. gaurus are commonly seen in an area for months.

    “It is also common to see the same solitary males in an area for months (Inverarity 1889; F. S. Ahrestani, in litt.).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Inverarity 1889

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites F. S. Ahrestani, in litt.

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § ECOLOGY

    Areas within 500 m of agricultural fields, areas within 500 m of major rivers, and areas below 61 m elevation were used disproportionately with respect to their availability in the ranges of these 3 B. gaurus individuals.

    “Furthermore, areas within 500 m of agricultural fields, areas within 500 m of major rivers, and areas below 61 m elevation were used disproportionately with respect to their availability in the ranges of these individuals.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Conry 1989 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § ECOLOGY

    In Bandipur, India, B. gaurus is confined to moist deciduous forests in the dry season and to dry deciduous forests in the wet season.

    “a year-long study across 200 km 2 in Bandipur, India, found B. gaurus to be confined to moist deciduous forests in the dry season and to dry deciduous forests in the wet season (Ahrestani et al. 2012a);”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Ahrestani et al. 2012a

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § ECOLOGY

    These 3 B. gaurus individuals frequently used areas adjacent to human settlements, and all their ranges included at least 1 salt lick.

    “These 3 B. gaurus individuals also frequently used areas adjacent to human settlements, and all their ranges included at least 1 salt lick.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Conry 1989 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § ECOLOGY

    Bos gaurus calves are preyed on by leopards, dhole, and tigers, although adults are preyed on primarily by tigers.

    “Bos gaurus calves are preyed on by leopards Panthera pardus, dhole Cuon alpinus, and tigers, although adults are preyed on primarily by tigers (Ahrestani et al. 2011).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Ahrestani et al. 2011

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation
    § ECOLOGY

    Although B. gaurus feeds on different plant parts, it primarily eats leaves.

    “Although B. gaurus feeds on different plant parts, it primarily eats leaves.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Gad and Shyama 2011 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationcitation
    § ECOLOGY

    B. gaurus eating of shoots is generally associated with its foraging on bamboo.

    “its eating of shoots is generally associated with its foraging on bamboo (Forsyth 1889;Krishnan 1972;Gad and Shyama 2011).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Forsyth 1889

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Krishnan 1972 source
    • cites Gad and Shyama 2011 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation
    § ECOLOGY

    Thus far, there has been only 1 report of a B. gaurus dying from anthrax.

    “Thus far, there has been only 1 report of a B. gaurus dying from anthrax (Peacock 1933).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Peacock 1933

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation
    § ECOLOGY

    Histologic examination of 2 B. gaurus that died in the Oklahoma City Zoo showed that they had Sarcosporidiosis.

    “Histologic examination of 2 B. gaurus that died in the Oklahoma City Zoo, United States, showed that they had Sarcosporidiosis, an infection caused by the intracellular protozoan parasite Sarcocystis (Welch and Zimmer 1981).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Welch and Zimmer 1981 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § ECOLOGY

    There have been reports of humans being charged by B. gaurus, and even fatalities from such attacks.

    “There have been, however, reports of humans being charged by B. gaurus, and even fatalities from such attacks.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Forsyth 1889

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Inverarity 1889

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Morris 1952

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisenone given
    § ECOLOGY

    Epidemics of foot-and-mouth disease have never been reported for B. gaurus populations.

    “Although epidemics of foot-and-mouth disease have never been reported for B. gaurus populations,”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § ECOLOGY

    In northeastern India, rinderpest epidemics killed several hundred B. gaurus in Raimora, Assam, in 1967, in the Rairakhol region, Orissa, in 1972, and in Berbera and Dhuanali, Orissa, in 1973.

    “In northeastern India, rinderpest epidemics killed several hundred B. gaurus in Raimora, Assam, in 1967, in the Rairakhol region, Orissa, in 1972, and in Berbera and Dhuanali, Orissa, in 1973(Imam 1985).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Imam 1985

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation
    § ECOLOGY

    The cattle diseases rinderpest, foot-and-mouth, and anthrax have been reported as affecting Bos gaurus populations from the earliest reports of the species.

    “Thecattle diseases rinderpest, foot-and-mouth, and anthrax have been reported as affecting Bos gaurus populations from the very earliest reports of the species.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Inverarity 1889

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Baker 1890

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Schaller 1967

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given
    § ECOLOGY

    The eating of bark by B. gaurus, often recorded in summer, is understood to be in response to either a shortage of forage or mineral resources, or both.

    “The eating of bark, which has often been recorded in summer, is understood to be in response to either a shortage of forage or mineral resources, or both.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § ECOLOGY

    Rinderpest was reported to have affected B. gaurus populations in India as early as the 19th century and in central India in the early part of the 20th century.

    “rinderpest was reported to have affected B. gaurus populations in India as early as the 19th century (Inverarity 1889; Baker 1890); the disease affected populations in central India in the early part of the 20th century (Dunbar-Brander 1923;Stewart 1927);”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Inverarity 1889

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Baker 1890

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Dunbar-Brander 1923

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § ECOLOGY

    In Malaysia, B. gaurus has been reported to feed on 89 different plant species, of which only 38 were grass species.

    “in Malaysia 89 different plant species, of which only 38 were grass species were reported (Weigum 1972);”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Weigum 1972

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § ECOLOGY

    In Kanha, B. gaurus has been found to feed on 7 shrub species, 6 grass species, 3 vine species, 4 forb species, fruits from 2 tree species, and leaves from at least 17 tree species.

    “in Kanha, B. gaurus have been found to feed on 7 shrub species, 6 grass species, 3 vine species, 4 forb species, fruits from 2 tree species, and leaves from at least 17 tree species (Schaller 1967);”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Schaller 1967

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given
    § ECOLOGY

    Old bachelor male B. gaurus are tolerant of the presence of humans, while females and herds are generally shy of humans and avoid contact as much as possible.

    “While old bachelor males are tolerant of the presence of humans, females and herds are generally shy of humans, avoiding contact as much as possible.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § ECOLOGY

    Leopards and tigers typically kill calves and females by asphyxiation using bites to their throats; 88% of 33 B. gaurus recorded killed by tigers in Nagarahole, India, were found with bites to their throats.

    “Leopards and tigers typically kill calves and females by asphyxiation using bites to their throats; 88% of 33 B. gaurus that were recorded killed by tigers were found with bites to their throats in Nagarahole, India (Karanth and Sunquist 1995).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Karanth and Sunquist 1995 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § ECOLOGY

    In southern India, rinderpest killed hundreds of B. gaurus in the first half of the 20th century, all but wiped out B. gaurus from Mudumalai in 1968, and nearly wiped out the B. gaurus population in Bandipur in 1989.

    “In southern India, rinderpest has been reported to have killed hundreds of B. gaurus in the 1st one-half of the 20th century (Anderson 1954), to have all but wiped out B. gaurus from Mudumalai in 1968 (Krishnan 1972), and to have nearly wiped out the B. gaurus population in Bandipur in 1989 (D. V. Girish, pers.comm.).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Anderson 1954

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Krishnan 1972 source
    • cites D. V. Girish, pers.comm.

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § ECOLOGY

    In Kanha, a B. gaurus female autopsied was lightly infested by nematodes in the large intestine and trematodes in the rumen, and ticks were found on 2 adults checked for ectoparasites.

    “In Kanha, a B. gaurus female autopsied was lightly infested by nematodes (Oesophagostomum radiatum) in the large intestine and trematodes (Gastrothylax crumenifer) in the rumen, and ticks (Boophilus microplus) were found on 2 adults that were checked for ectoparasites (Schaller 1967).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Schaller 1967

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given
    § ECOLOGY

    There have been no reports of Bos gaurus fighting with other herbivores, and B. gaurus is generally considered tolerant of other herbivores.

    “Therehave been no reports of Bos gaurus fighting with other herbivores, and in general, B. gaurus is considered to be tolerant of other herbivores.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning
    § ECOLOGY

    Male B. gaurus have a thick neck and often a dewlap, which makes killing them by asphyxiation difficult.

    “Males, however, have a thick neck and often a dewlap, which makes killing them by asphyxiation difficult.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § ECOLOGY

    Analysis of scats of primary predators in Mudumalai Tiger Reserve showed that B. gaurus made up 0.19% of dhole diet and about 5% of tiger diet.

    “analysis of scats of the primary predators in Mudumalai Tiger Reserve, India, showed that B. gaurus made up 0.19% of dhole diet and about 5% of tiger diet (Johnsingh 1983);”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Johnsingh 1983 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § HUSBANDRY

    All cases of interbreeding between B. gaurus and B. frontalis and between B. gaurus and cattle have resulted in only a few fertile females and always in infertile males.

    “all cases of interbreeding between B. gaurus and B. frontalis and between B. gaurus and cattle have resulted in only a few fertile females and always in infertile males (Simmons 1984).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Simmons 1984

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § HUSBANDRY

    The male:female ratio in inbred captive populations has been skewed toward males, 62:38, in contrast to the 46:54 male:female ratio found in captive populations that were not inbred.

    “The male:female ratio in inbred captive populations has been skewed toward males, 62:38, in contrast to the 46:54 male:female ratio found in captive populations that were not inbred (Hintz and Foose 1982).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Hintz and Foose 1982 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § HUSBANDRY

    Bos gaurus males have been found mating with B. frontalis females, and there have been reports of B. frontalis × B. gaurus hybrids.

    “Bos gaurus males have been found mating with B. frontalis females, and there have been reports of B. frontalis × B. gaurus hybrids (Baker 1890;Gee 1964;Simmons 1984).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Baker 1890

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Gee 1964

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Simmons 1984

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation
    § GENETICS

    One study that sequenced Cyt b genes from B. frontalis and B. gaurus found the genome sequence of B. frontalis to differ from B. gaurus.

    “In contradiction to the above studies, a study that sequenced the Cyt b genes from 28 B. frontalis from Yunnan, China, 13 B. frontalis from Arunachal Pradesh, India, and 1 B. gaurus from Yunnan, China, found the genome sequence of B. frontalis to differ from the B. gaurus (Baig et al. 2013).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Baig et al. 2013

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § BEHAVIOR

    In Mudumalai, 48% of males observed in 2008-2009 and 52% of all B. gaurus observed in 1976-1978 were solitary adult males.

    “in other studies from Mudumalai, 48% of males observed in 2008-2009 (Ramesh et al. 2012) and 52% of all B. gaurus observed in 1976-1978 were solitary adult males (Johnsingh 1983).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Ramesh et al. 2012 source
    • cites Johnsingh 1983 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § BEHAVIOR

    Females of all ages and males below the age of 3 years are nearly always found in herds, and adult males are found both within herds and alone.

    “Females of all ages and males below the age of 3 years are nearly always found in herds, and adult males are found both within herds and alone (Inverarity 1889;Hubback 1937;Morris 1937;Schaller 1967).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Inverarity 1889

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Hubback 1937 source
    • cites Schaller 1967

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning
    § BEHAVIOR

    The majority of solitary male B. gaurus are old, black bulls, which suggests that the solitary nature of males increases with advancing age.

    “The majority of solitary males are old, black bulls, which suggests that the solitary nature of males increases with advancing age.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § ECOLOGY

    If a herd has calves, the females in the herd are known to bunch together in a muskox fashion and have been observed leaping, kicking, snorting, tossing horns, and advancing toward detected leopards, tigers, and other perceived threats.

    “If a herd has calves, the females in the herd are known to bunch together in a muskox fashion, i.e., backs to each other and facing outwards, and have been observed leaping and kicking their hind legs, snorting and tossing their horns, and holding their heads low and advancing, sometimes rapidly toward detected leopards and tigers and other perceived threats (Krishnan 1972;Johnsingh 1983;Karanth 1”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Krishnan 1972 source
    • cites Johnsingh 1983 source
    • cites Karanth 1984 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § BEHAVIOR

    Of 200 herds tallied in Kanha, about 50% had a black bull, and 56 of 147 herds encountered in the Bandipur-Mudumalai landscape had a black bull.

    “Of 200 herds tallied in Kanha, about 50% had a black bull (Schaller 1967), and 56 of 147 herds encountered in the Bandipur-Mudumalai landscape had a black bull (F. S. Ahrestani, in litt.).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Schaller 1967

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites F. S. Ahrestani, in litt.

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation
    § HUSBANDRY

    Initial attempts to breed B. gaurus in captivity failed.

    “Initial attempts to breed B. gaurus in captivity failed (Forsyth 1889).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Forsyth 1889

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § BEHAVIOR

    Female B. gaurus separate from their herd to give birth alone and have been known to stay away for as long as 4 days.

    “Females separate from their herd to give birth alone and have been known to stay away for as long as 4 days (Sanderson 1912).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Sanderson 1912

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § BEHAVIOR

    When B. gaurus lies down, it generally does so with its legs folded under its body, but it will occasionally also lie flat on its side with legs stretched out.

    “When B. gaurus lies down, it generally does so with its legs folded under its body, but it will occasionally also lie flat on its side with legs stretched out.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Forsyth 1889

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation
    § BEHAVIOR

    Large aggregations of more than 50 B. gaurus individuals have been observed and appear to be temporary composite herds, most likely to exploit a favorable forage resource in an area.

    “Large (> 50 individuals) aggregations of B. gaurus have also been observed (Sanderson 1912;Mustill 1938;Johnsingh 1983; F. S. Ahrestani, in litt.).These large aggregations appear to be temporary composite herds, i.e., multiple smaller herds coming together to form 1 large herd, most likely to exploit a favorable forage resource in an area.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Sanderson 1912

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Mustill 1938

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Johnsingh 1983 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation
    § BEHAVIOR

    Schaller observed that the bony boss of male B. gaurus absorbed much of the headbutting in male-male confrontations.

    “Schaller (1967) observed that the bony boss (the forehead between the horns) of the males absorbed much of the headbutting in male-male confrontations.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Schaller 1967

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § BEHAVIOR

    In contrast to adult males, female B. gaurus, besides snorting during fear and threatening behavior, are only known to moo, sounding just like cattle.

    “In contrast to adult males, females, besides snorting during fear and threatening behavior, are only known to moo, sounding just like cattle (Dunbar-Brander 1923;Krishnan 1972; F. S. Ahrestani, in litt.).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Dunbar-Brander 1923

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Krishnan 1972 source
    • cites F. S. Ahrestani, in litt.

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § BEHAVIOR

    Older black bulls do not commonly spar with each other, while younger (3-5 years) adult males spar by facing each other with lowered heads, locking horns, and twisting their locked heads from side to side.

    “Although older black bulls do not commonly spar with each other, younger (3-5 years) adult males spar by facing each other with lowered heads (Fig. 8), locking horns, and then twisting their locked heads from side to side (Schaller 1967; F. S. Ahrestani, in litt.).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Schaller 1967

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites F. S. Ahrestani, in litt.

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Premisenone given
    § BEHAVIOR

    Calves and yearlings (<18 months) are always seen in herds with adult females, and a young calf (<3 months) is nearly always found at the heels of an adult female, presumably its mother.

    “Calves and yearlings (< 18 months) are always seen in herds with adult females, and a young calf (< 3 months) is nearly always found at the heels of an adult female, presumably its mother.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § BEHAVIOR

    Herds often include 2-3 black bulls and sometimes even include 6-8 adult males.

    “Herds often include 2-3 black bulls and sometimes even include 6-8 adult males (Schaller 1967; F. S. Ahrestani, in litt.).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Schaller 1967

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites F. S. Ahrestani, in litt.

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation
    § BEHAVIOR

    Mean herd size of B. gaurus is about 6-7 and varies by study and location.

    “Mean herd size is about 6-7 and varies by study and location:”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Ashokkumar et al. 2010

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Ramesh et al. 2012 source
    • cites Schaller 1967

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation
    § BEHAVIOR

    Similar to cattle, Bos gaurus grooms itself by licking its hide, rubbing its neck, rump, and sides against trees, or scratching itself with the tips of its horns.

    “Similarto cattle, Bos gaurusgrooms itself by licking its hide; rubbing its neck, rump, and sides against trees; or scratching itself with the tips of its horns.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Forsyth 1889

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation
    § BEHAVIOR

    Bos gaurus generally lies down under the shade of trees and within swards of tall grass.

    “B. gaurus generally lies down under the shade of trees and within swards of tall grass, where it is difficult for it to be detected in the flickering shadow of trees (Forsyth 1889).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Forsyth 1889

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation
    § BEHAVIOR

    Mothers tend to thoroughly lick calves directly after their birth.

    “Mothers tend to thoroughly lick calves directly after their birth (Krishnan 1972).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Krishnan 1972 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § CONSERVATION

    The global Bos gaurus population is estimated to be 13,000-30,000 and is projected to decline by 30% over the next 3 decades.

    “The global Bos gaurus population is estimated to be 13,000-30,000 and is projected to decline by 30% over the next 3 decades (Duckworth et al. 2016).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Duckworth et al. 2016

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § CONSERVATION

    Country-wide populations of B. gaurus in Bangladesh, Cambodia, China, Laos, Malaysia, Vietnam, and Thailand have declined by over 70% in the last 2-3 decades, although the decline in India and Nepal has been considerably lower.

    “Country-wide populations in Bangladesh, Cambodia, China, Laos, Malaysia, Vietnam, and Thailand have declined by over 70% in the last 2-3 decades, although the decline in India and Nepal have been considerably lower.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Duckworth et al. 2016

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § BEHAVIOR

    Schaller observed 81 sparring incidents during his study, the majority of which (48%) were between young adult males, 10% were between young adult males and adult females, and 14% were between adult females.

    “Schaller observed 81 sparring incidents during his study, the majority of which (48%) were between young adult males, 10% were between young adult males and adult females, and 14% were between adult females.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Schaller 1967

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Premisenone given
    § CONSERVATION

    In 1995, the last remaining herd of B. gaurus left Bandhavgarh Tiger Reserve.

    “In 1995, the last remaining herd of B. gaurus left Bandhavgarh Tiger Reserve.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given
    § CONSERVATION

    Since the reintroduction, the newly established B. gaurus population in Bandhavgarh has been thriving and multiplying.

    “Since the reintroduction, the newly established B. gaurus population in Bandhavgarh has been thriving and multiplying.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
136 of 136

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Bos gaurus is the world's largest cattle species.

    “It is the world's largest cattle species.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Bos gaurus is endemic to south and southeastern Asia.

    “Bos gaurus is endemic to south and southeastern Asia”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Today, the majority of the B. gaurus population occurs in India.

    “today, the majority of its population occurs in India.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Although B. gaurus consumes numerous browse species, it is primarily a grazer.

    “Although B. gaurus consumes numerous browse species, it is primarily a grazer.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Except for older males, all other B. gaurus are nearly always found in herds.

    “Except for older males, all other B. gaurus are nearly always found in herds.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Bos gaurus is classified as a Vulnerable species.

    “It is classified as a Vulnerable species”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    In 2011-2012, the first reintroductions of B. gaurus occurred in central India.

    “in 2011-2012, the first reintroductions of B. gaurus occurred in central India.”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    B. gaurus has been largely extirpated in southern Thailand.

    “Forests are highly fragmented in southern Thailand, and it is assumed that B. gaurus has been largely extirpated in this region.”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    Free-ranging B. gaurus give birth every year.

    “Given their 9-to 10-month gestation period, there is no reason not to assume that free-ranging B. gaurus give birth every year too (Ahrestani et al. 2011).”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    The sex ratio at birth for B. gaurus is parity.

    “based on data of other Bovini species, Ahrestani et al. (2011) concluded that there was no reason not to assume that the sex ratio at birth for B. gaurus is parity.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    There is an acute lack of protected plains and grassland habitats in India and southeastern Asia.

    “there is an acute lack of protected plains and grassland habitats in India and southeastern Asia.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The difference between male and female B. gaurus till the age of 2 years is minimal.

    “Given that the difference between males and females till the age of 2 years is minimal”
12 of 12

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.

  • Female age classes total 13, not 14

    Minor

    The listed female age classes add to 13 (1 + 5 + 7), not the reported 14. Consequently, the listed males and females account for 18 of the reported 19 translocated animals.

    Reported 14 · recomputed 13

  • Reported time in heat exceeds the estrous cycle

    Minor

    The paper gives an average estrous cycle of 22 days for Bos frontalis but says females remain in heat for an average of 45 days. A period of heat within a cycle cannot last longer than the cycle itself.

2 of 2

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

Research works printed but not linked: 65

  1. Ali, 1953, Hyderabad State, 82
  2. Badam, 1990, A cranium of gaur, Bibos gaurus (Bovidae, Mammalia) from the Pleistocene of India, Modern Geology, 15, 49
  3. Baker, 1903, The gaur and the gayal (Bos gaurus and Bos frontalis), Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 15, 227
  4. Belsare, 1984, Composition and behaviour of gaur herd in Kanha National Park, Cheetal, 26, 28
  5. Bibi, 2009, The fossil record and evolution of Bovidae: state of the field, Palaeontologia Electronica, 12, 1
  6. Blackburn, 1934, A bull gaur (B. gaurus) and a tigress fight to death, Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 37, 950
  7. Blanford, 1888, The fauna of British India: Mammalia
  8. Byers, 1995, Asian wild cattle conservation assessment and management plan workshop
  9. Cameron, 1929, Body measurements of a gaur (Bibos gaurus), Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 33, 983
  10. Clutton-Brock, 1987, A natural history of domesticated mammals
  11. Colebrooke, 1808, Description of a species of ox, named gayal, Asiatic Researches, 8, 511
  12. Crandall, 1964, The management of wild animals in captivity
  13. Cuvier, 1824, Jungly-Gau
  14. Dasgupta, 2008, Density, group size and sex ratios of gaur (Bos gaurus H. Smith) in a sub-tropical semi-evergreen forest of northeast India, Indian Forester, 134, 1281
  15. Foenander, 1952, Big game of Malaya
  16. Gee, 1964, The wildlife of India
  17. Grubb, 2005, Order Artiodactyla, 637
  18. Guin, 1982, Seasonal migration of gaur (Bos gaurus H.Smith) at Garumara Wildlife Sanctuary, West Bengal, India, Cheetal, 23, 6
  19. Hamilton-Smith, 1827, Supplement to the order Ruminantia, 33
  20. Hamilton-Smith, 1827, Order 7, Ruminantia, 296
  21. Hardwicke, 1828, On the Bos gour of India, The Zoological Journal, 3, 231
  22. Heude, 1901, Genre Gauribos H, Mémoires concernant L’Histoire Naturelle De L’Empire Chinois, 5, 3
  23. Hodgson, 1837, Description of the Gauri Gau of the Nipal forest, The Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, 6, 499
  24. Hodgson, 1837, On the Bibos, Gauri Gau or Gaurika Gau of the Indian forests, The Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, 6, 745
  25. Hodgson, 1847, On various genera of the ruminants, The Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, 16, 685
  26. Imam, 1985, Seasonal migrations of gaur (Bos gaurus), Cheetal, 26, 45
  27. Inverarity, 1889, The Indian bison, Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 3, 294
  28. International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature, 2003, Opinion 2027 (Case 3010). Usage of 17 specific names based on wild species which are pre-dated by or contemporary with those based on domestic animals (Lepidoptera, Osteichthyes, Mammalia): conserved, The Bulletin of Zoological Nomenclature, 60, 81
  29. Jardine, 1836, The auroch, The Naturalist’s Library, 22, 249
  30. Jardine, 1836, The Sylhet ox, The Naturalist’s Library, 22, 257
  31. Johnson, 1986, A fight between bull gaurs in Mudumalai, Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 83, 659
  32. Kerr, 1792, The animal kingdom, or zoological system of Sir Charles Linnaeus: Class I Mammalia
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  34. Knox, 1681, An historical relation of the Island Ceylon in the East-Indies
  35. Lal, 1993, Paratuberculosis in a wild gaur (Bos gaurus Smith) in Palamau Tigere Reserve, Bihar, Indian Veterinary Journal, 70, 463
  36. Lydekker, 1903, The Burmese gaur, or pyoung, The Zoologist, 4th Series, 7, 264
  37. Lydekker, 1907, The game animals of India, Burma, Malaya and Tibet
  38. Lydekker, 1913, Catalogue of the ungulate mammals in the British Museum (Natural History), Vol. 1: Artiodactyla, family Bovidae, subfamilies Bovinae to Ovibovinae (cattle, sheep, goats, chamois, serows, takin, musk-oxen, etc.)
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  41. Morris, 1937, Close seasons for big game – are they beneficial, Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 39, 621
  42. Morris, 1949, A diseased gaur, Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 48, 578
  43. Morris, 1952, Cases of unwounded gaur or Indian bison (Bibos gaurus) charging, Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 51, 266
  44. Morris, 1953, Gaur attacking man, Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 52, 204
  45. Mustill, 1938, Behaviour of gaur or Indian Bison (Bibos gaurus), Journal of The Bombay Natural History Society, 40, 731
  46. Ogilvie, 1954, The behaviour of seladang, Malay Nature Journal, 9, 1
  47. Prayurasiddhi, 1997, The ecological separation between gaur (Bos gaurus) and banteng (Bos javanicus) in Huai Kha Khaeng Wildlife Sanctuary, Thailand
  48. Reed, 1959, Report on the National Zoological Park for 1958, 140
  49. Robison, 1941, Measurements of an Indian bison head (Bibos gaurus), Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 43, 100
  50. Roulin, 1849, Boeuf, 616
  51. Sahai, 1977, Backs to the walls: saga of wildlife in Bihar, India
  52. Sankar, 2002, Ecology of gaur (Bos gaurus) in Pench Tiger Reserve, Madhya Pradesh
  53. Simmons, 1984, Gayal or mithan, 34
  54. Spilsbury, 1840, On Bos gaurus, The Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, 9, 551
  55. Stevens, 1968, The conservation of wildlife in west Malaysia
  56. Stewart, 1927, Tiger and other game: the practical experiences of a soldier shikari in India
  57. Sundevall, 1844, Methodisk öfversigt af Idislande djuren, Linnés Pecora, Kongl Vetenskaps-Akademiens Handlingar for Ar, 1844, 121
  58. Timmins, 2001, The importance of Phnom Prich Wildlife Sanctuary and adjacent areas for the conservation of tigers and other key species
  59. Tordoff, 2005, Biological assessment of the Lower Mekong Dry Forests Ecoregion
  60. Traill, 1824, Some account of an animal of the genus Bos, which in India is named gour, The Edinburgh Philosophical Journal, 11, 334
  61. Tyabji, 1989, Reaction of a group of gaur (Bos gaurus) to the presence of an unidentified predator at Bandhavgarh National Park, Madhya Pradesh, Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 87, 287
  62. Vairavel, 1998, Ecology of gaur (Bos gaurus H. Smith) with special reference to habitat utilization in Parambikulum Wildlife Sanctuary, Kerala, India
  63. Wang, 2015, Pleistocene Bos (Bibos) gaurus from Bailong Cave in Yunxi County, Hubei, Acta Anthropologica Sinica, 34, 1
  64. Weigum, 1972, The problems in the preservation of the seladang in the Malaysian National Park
  65. Xiang, 1993, Asian elephant specialist group report, Species, 20, 54

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Authors
Ahrestani, F. S.
Affiliations
Foundation for Ecological Research, Advocacy and Learning, Auroville Post, Tamil Nadu, India
Corresponding author
Ahrestani, Farshid S
ORCID
Ahrestani, Farshid S
Venue
Mammalian Species
Publisher
Oxford University Press (OUP)
Published
2018-08-17
Volume
50
Issue
959
Pages
34-50
ISSN
  • 0076-3519 (ISSN-L)
  • 1545-1410
DOI
10.1093/mspecies/sey004
OpenAlex
W2885110168
Semantic Scholar
748ec867005afd9d8e8667ba4f8d53049f379bc9
Cited by
26
References
110
Citations by year
2026: 2 · 2025: 6 · 2024: 4 · 2023: 2 · 2022: 6 · 2021: 1 · 2020: 4 · 2019: 1
FWCI
1.09
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
academic.oup.com/journals/pages/open_access/funder_policies/chorus/standard_publication_model (vor)
Locations
  • Mammalian Species (publishedVersion)
  • Zenodo (CERN European Organization for Nuclear Research) (submittedVersion)
Topics
  • Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Ecology › Wildlife Ecology and Conservation
  • Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Ecology › Rangeland and Wildlife Management
  • Physical Sciences › Earth and Planetary Sciences › Paleontology › Evolution and Paleontology Studies
Keywords
Bos gaurus, gaur, Bos frontalis, wild cattle, Bovidae, sexual dimorphism, grazing, herding behavior, vulnerable species, reintroduction

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Claims read by deepseek-v4.1-flash under definition version 3 (extract-v3) on 2026-10-10.

Classified by jev-1.13-20260917 (gold-guideline-v0.2) on 2026-10-10.

Cited sources are checked by gpt-6-sol.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›

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